Explain how employees are motivated according to Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs.
Explain how the ERG (existence, relatedness, growth) theory
addresses the limitations of Maslow’s hierarchy.
Describe the differences among factors contributing to employee
motivation and how these differ from factors contributing to
dissatisfaction.
Describe need for achievement, power, and affiliation, and
identify how these acquired needs affect work behavior.
The earliest studies of motivation involved an examination of
individual needs. Specifically, early researchers thought that
employees try hard and demonstrate goal-driven behavior in order to
satisfy needs. For example, an employee who is always walking
around the office talking to people may have a need for
companionship, and his behavior may be a way of satisfying this
need. At the time, researchers developed theories to understand
what people need. Four theories may be placed under this category:
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, Herzberg’s two-factor
theory, and McClelland’s acquired-needs theory.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent psychologists of the
twentieth century. His hierarchy of needs is an image familiar to
most business students and managers. The theory is based on a
simple premise: Human beings have needs that are hierarchically
ranked (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1954). There are some needs that are
basic to all human beings, and in their absence nothing else
matters. As we satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to
satisfy higher order needs. In other words, once a lower level need
is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator.
The most basic of Maslow’s needs are physiological needs. Physiological needs refer
to the need for food, water, and other biological needs. These
needs are basic because when they are lacking, the search for them
may overpower all other urges. Imagine being very hungry. At that
point, all your behavior may be directed at finding food. Once you
eat, though, the search for food ceases and the promise of food no
longer serves as a motivator. Once physiological needs are
satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety needs. Are they free from the threat of
danger, pain, or an uncertain future? On the next level up,
social needs refer to the need to
bond with other human beings, be loved, and form lasting
attachments with others. In fact, attachments, or lack of them, are
associated with our health and well-being (Baumeister & Leary,
1995). The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs more salient. Esteem need refers
to the desire to be respected by one’s peers, feel important, and
be appreciated. Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the
need for self-actualization refers
to “becoming all you are capable of becoming.” This need manifests
itself by the desire to acquire new skills, take on new challenges,
and behave in a way that will lead to the attainment of one’s life
goals.
Maslow was a clinical psychologist, and his theory was not
originally designed for work settings. In fact, his theory was
based on his observations of individuals in clinical settings; some
of the individual components of the theory found little empirical
support. One criticism relates to the order in which the needs are
ranked. It is possible to imagine that individuals who go hungry
and are in fear of their lives might retain strong bonds to others,
suggesting a different order of needs. Moreover, researchers failed
to support the arguments that once a need is satisfied it no longer
serves as a motivator and that only one need is dominant at a given
time (Neher, 1991; Rauschenberger, Schmitt, & Hunter,
1980).
Despite the lack of strong research support, Maslow’s theory
found obvious applications in business settings. Understanding what
people need gives us clues to understanding them. The hierarchy is
a systematic way of thinking about the different needs employees
may have at any given point and explains different reactions they
may have to similar treatment. An employee who is trying to satisfy
esteem needs may feel gratified when her supervisor praises an
accomplishment. However, another employee who is trying to satisfy
social needs may resent being praised by upper management in front
of peers if the praise sets the individual apart from the rest of
the group.
How can an organization satisfy its employees’ various needs? In
the long run, physiological needs may be satisfied by the person’s
paycheck, but it is important to remember that pay may satisfy
other needs such as safety and esteem as well. Providing generous
benefits that include health insurance and company-sponsored
retirement plans, as well as offering a measure of job security,
will help satisfy safety needs. Social needs may be satisfied by
having a friendly environment and providing a workplace conducive
to collaboration and communication with others. Company picnics and
other social get-togethers may also be helpful if the majority of
employees are motivated primarily by social needs (but may cause
resentment if they are not and if they have to sacrifice a Sunday
afternoon for a company picnic). Providing promotion opportunities
at work, recognizing a person’s accomplishments verbally or through
more formal reward systems, and conferring job titles that
communicate to the employee that one has achieved high status
within the organization are among the ways of satisfying esteem
needs. Finally, self-actualization needs may be satisfied by the
provision of development and growth opportunities on or off the
job, as well as by work that is interesting and challenging. By
making the effort to satisfy the different needs of each employee,
organizations may ensure a highly motivated workforce.
ERG Theory
ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Alderfer, 1969). Instead of the five
needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that
basic human needs may be grouped under three categories, namely,
existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence corresponds to Maslow’s
physiological and safety needs, relatedness corresponds to social needs, and
growth refers to Maslow’s esteem
and self-actualization.
ERG theory’s main contribution to the literature is its
relaxation of Maslow’s assumptions. For example, ERG theory does
not rank needs in any particular order and explicitly recognizes
that more than one need may operate at a given time. Moreover, the
theory has a “frustration-regression” hypothesis suggesting that
individuals who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one
need may regress to another. For example, someone who is frustrated
by the growth opportunities in his job and progress toward career
goals may regress to relatedness need and start spending more time
socializing with coworkers. The implication of this theory is that
we need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving
individuals at a given point to understand their behavior and
properly motivate them.
Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a
different way. By asking individuals what satisfies them on the job
and what dissatisfies them, Herzberg came to the conclusion that
aspects of the work environment that satisfy employees are very
different from aspects that dissatisfy them (Herzberg, Mausner,
& Snyderman, 1959; Herzberg, 1965). Herzberg labeled factors
causing dissatisfaction of workers as “hygiene” factors because
these factors were part of the context in which the job was
performed, as opposed to the job itself. Hygiene factors included company policies,
supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, and security on
the job. To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an
unpleasant work environment. Your office is too hot in the summer
and too cold in the winter. You are being harassed and mistreated.
You would certainly be miserable in such a work environment.
However, if these problems were solved (your office temperature is
just right and you are not harassed at all), would you be
motivated? Most likely, you would take the situation for granted.
In fact, many factors in our work environment are things that we
miss when they are absent but take for granted if they are
present.
In contrast, motivators are
factors that are intrinsic to the job, such as achievement,
recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities,
advancement, and growth opportunities. According to Herzberg’s
research, motivators are the conditions that truly encourage
employees to try harder.
Hygiene Factors
Company policy
Supervision and relationships
Working conditions
Salary
Security
Motivators
Achievement
Recognition
Interesting work
Increased responsibility
Advancement and growth
Figure 5.5: The two-factor
theory of motivation includes hygiene factors and motivators.
Sources: Based on Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B.
(1959). The motivation to work. New York:
John Wiley and Sons; Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to work
among Finnish supervisors. Personnel
Psychology, 18, 393–402.
Herzberg’s research is far from being universally accepted
(Cummings & Elsalmi, 1968; House & Wigdor, 1967). One
criticism relates to the primary research methodology employed when
arriving at hygiene versus motivators. When people are asked why
they are satisfied, they may attribute the causes of satisfaction
to themselves, whereas when explaining what dissatisfies them, they
may blame the situation. The classification of the factors as
hygiene or motivator is not that simple either. For example, the
theory views pay as a hygiene factor. However, pay may have
symbolic value by showing employees that they are being recognized
for their contributions as well as communicating that they are
advancing within the company. Similarly, the quality of supervision
or the types of relationships employees form with their supervisors
may determine whether they are assigned interesting work, whether
they are recognized for their potential, and whether they take on
more responsibilities.
Despite its limitations, the theory can be a valuable aid to
managers because it points out that improving the environment in
which the job is performed goes only so far in motivating
employees. Undoubtedly, contextual factors matter because their
absence causes dissatisfaction. However, solely focusing on hygiene
factors will not be enough, and managers should also enrich jobs by
giving employees opportunities for challenging work, greater
responsibilities, advancement opportunities, and a job in which
their subordinates can feel successful.
Acquired-Needs Theory
Among the need-based approaches to motivation, David
McClelland’s acquired-needs theory is the one that has received the
greatest amount of support. According to this theory, individuals
acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences.
These needs are the need for achievement, the need for affiliation,
and the need for power. All individuals possess a combination of
these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive employee
behavior.
McClelland used a unique method called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to assess the
dominant need (Spangler, 1992). This method entails presenting
research subjects an ambiguous picture asking them to write a story
based on it. Take a look at the following picture. Who is this
person? What is she doing? Why is she doing it? The story you tell
about the woman in the picture would then be analyzed by trained
experts. The idea is that the stories the photo evokes would
reflect how the mind works and what motivates the person.
If the story you come up with contains themes of success,
meeting deadlines, or coming up with brilliant ideas, you may be
high in need for achievement. Those who have high need for achievement have a strong need to be
successful. As children, they may be praised for their hard work,
which forms the foundations of their persistence (Mueller &
Dweck, 1998). As adults, they are preoccupied with doing things
better than they did in the past. These individuals are constantly
striving to improve their performance. They relentlessly focus on
goals, particularly stretch goals that are challenging in nature
(Campbell, 1982). They are particularly suited to positions such as
sales, where there are explicit goals, feedback is immediately
available, and their effort often leads to success. In fact, they
are more attracted to organizations that are merit-based and reward
performance rather than seniority. They also do particularly well
as entrepreneurs, scientists, and engineers (Harrell & Stahl,
1981; Trevis & Certo, 2005; Turban & Keon, 1993).
Are individuals who are high in need for achievement effective
managers? Because of their success in lower level jobs where their
individual contributions matter the most, those with high need for
achievement are often promoted to higher level positions
(McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). However, a high need for
achievement has significant disadvantages in management positions.
Management involves getting work done by motivating others. When a
salesperson is promoted to be a sales manager, the job description
changes from actively selling to recruiting, motivating, and
training salespeople. Those who are high in need for achievement
may view managerial activities such as coaching, communicating, and
meeting with subordinates as a waste of time and may neglect these
aspects of their jobs. Moreover, those high in need for achievement
enjoy doing things themselves and may find it difficult to delegate
any meaningful authority to their subordinates. These individuals
often micromanage, expecting others to approach tasks a particular
way, and may become overbearing bosses by expecting everyone to
display high levels of dedication (McClelland & Burnham,
1976).
If the story you created in relation to the picture you are
analyzing contains elements of making plans to be with friends or
family, you may have a high need for affiliation. Individuals who
have a high need for affiliation
want to be liked and accepted by others. When given a choice, they
prefer to interact with others and be with friends (Wong &
Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). Their emphasis on harmonious interpersonal
relationships may be an advantage in jobs and occupations requiring
frequent interpersonal interaction, such as a social worker or
teacher. In managerial positions, a high need for affiliation may
again serve as a disadvantage because these individuals tend to be
overly concerned about how they are perceived by others. They may
find it difficult to perform some aspects of a manager’s job such
as giving employees critical feedback or disciplining poor
performers. Thus, the work environment may be characterized by
mediocrity and may even lead to high performers leaving the
team.
Finally, if your story contains elements of getting work done by
influencing other people or desiring to make an impact on the
organization, you may have a high need for power. Those with a high
need for power want to influence
others and control their environment. A need for power may in fact
be a destructive element in relationships with colleagues if it
takes the form of seeking and using power for one’s own good and
prestige. However, when it manifests itself in more altruistic
forms such as changing the way things are done so that the work
environment is more positive, or negotiating more resources for
one’s department, it tends to lead to positive outcomes. In fact,
the need for power is viewed as an important trait for
effectiveness in managerial and leadership positions (McClelland
& Burnham, 1976; Spangler & House, 1991; Spreier,
2006).
McClelland’s theory of acquired needs has important implications
for the motivation of employees. Managers need to understand the
dominant needs of their employees to be able to motivate them.
While people who have a high need for achievement may respond to
goals, those with a high need for power may attempt to gain
influence over those they work with, and individuals high in their
need for affiliation may be motivated to gain the approval of their
peers and supervisors. Finally, those who have a high drive for
success may experience difficulties in managerial positions, and
making them aware of common pitfalls may increase their
effectiveness.
Key Takeaways
Need-based theories describe motivated behavior as individuals’
efforts to meet their needs. According to this perspective, the
manager’s job is to identify what people need and make the work
environment a means of satisfying these needs. Maslow’s hierarchy
describes five categories of basic human needs, including
physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization
needs. These needs are hierarchically ranked, and as a lower level
need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator. ERG theory
is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy, in which the five needs
are collapsed into three categories (existence, relatedness, and
growth). The theory recognizes that when employees are frustrated
while attempting to satisfy higher level needs, they may regress.
The two-factor theory differentiates between factors that make
people dissatisfied on the job (hygiene factors) and factors that
truly motivate employees (motivators). Finally, acquired-needs
theory argues that individuals possess stable and dominant motives
to achieve, acquire power, or affiliate with others. The type of
need that is dominant will drive behavior. Each of these theories
explains characteristics of a work environment that motivates
employees. These theories paved the way to process-based theories
that explain the mental calculations employees make to decide how
to behave.
Exercises
Many managers assume that if an employee is not performing
well, the reason must be a lack of motivation. Do you think this
reasoning is accurate? What is the problem with the
assumption?
Review Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Do you agree with the
particular ranking of employee needs?
How can an organization satisfy employee needs that are
included in Maslow’s hierarchy?
Which motivation theory have you found to be most useful in
explaining why people behave in a certain way? Why?
Review the hygiene and motivators in the two-factor theory of
motivation. Do you agree with the distinction between hygiene
factors and motivators? Are there any hygiene factors that you
would consider to be motivators?
A friend of yours demonstrates the traits of achievement
motivation: This person is competitive, requires frequent and
immediate feedback, and enjoys accomplishing things and doing
things better than she did before. She has recently been promoted
to a managerial position and seeks your advice. What would you tell
her?
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