- How do you recognize and account for the exercise of
counterpower and make appropriate use of strategic contingencies in
interunit or interorganizational relations?
As we look around organizations, it is easy to see the
manifestations of power almost anywhere. In fact, there are a wide
variety of power-based methods used to influence others. Here, we
will examine three aspects of the use of power: commonly used power
tactics in organizations, symbols of managerial power, and the
ethical use of power.
Common Power Tactics in Organizations
As noted above, many power tactics are available for use by
managers. However, as we will see, some are more ethical than
others. Here, we look at some of the more commonly used power
tactics found in both business and public organizations.
Controlling Access to Information. Most
decisions rest on the availability of relevant information, so
persons controlling access to information play a major
role in decisions made. A good example of this is the common
corporate practice of pay secrecy. Only the personnel department
and senior managers typically have salary information—and power—for
personnel decisions.
Controlling Access to Persons. Another related
power tactic is the practice of controlling access to
persons. A well-known factor contributing to President Nixon’s
downfall was his isolation from others. His two senior advisers had
complete control over who saw the president. Similar criticisms
were leveled against President Reagan.
Selective Use of Objective Criteria. Very few
organizational questions have one correct answer; instead,
decisions must be made concerning the most appropriate criteria for
evaluating results. As such, significant power can be exercised by
those who can practice selective use of objective criteria
that will lead to a decision favorable to themselves. According to
Herbert Simon, if an individual is permitted to select decision
criteria, he needn’t care who actually makes the decision. Attempts
to control objective decision criteria can be seen in faculty
debates in a university or college over who gets hired or promoted.
One group tends to emphasize teaching and will attempt to set
criteria for employment dealing with teacher competence, subject
area, interpersonal relations, and so on. Another group may
emphasize research and will try to set criteria related to number
of publications, reputation in the field, and so on.
Controlling the Agenda. One of the simplest
ways to influence a decision is to ensure that it never comes up
for consideration in the first place. There are a variety of
strategies used for controlling the agenda. Efforts may be
made to order the topics at a meeting in such a way that the
undesired topic is last on the list. Failing this, opponents may
raise a number of objections or points of information concerning
the topic that cannot be easily answered, thereby tabling the topic
until another day.
Using Outside Experts. Still another means to
gain an advantage is using outside experts. The unit
wishing to exercise power may take the initiative and bring in
experts from the field or experts known to be in sympathy with
their cause. Hence, when a dispute arises over spending more money
on research versus actual production, we would expect differing
answers from outside research consultants and outside production
consultants. Most consultants have experienced situations in which
their clients fed them information and biases they hoped the
consultant would repeat in a meeting.
Bureaucratic Gamesmanship. In some situations,
the organizations own policies and procedures provide ammunition
for power plays, or bureaucratic gamesmanship. For
instance, a group may drag its feet on making changes in the
workplace by creating red tape, work slowdowns, or “work to
rule.” (Working to rule occurs when employees diligently
follow every work rule and policy statement to the letter; this
typically results in the organization’s grinding to a halt as a
result of the many and often conflicting rules and policy
statements.) In this way, the group lets it be known that the
workflow will continue to slow down until they get their way.
Coalitions and Alliances. The final power
tactic to be discussed here is that of coalitions
and alliances. One unit can effectively increase its power
by forming an alliance with other groups that share similar
interests. This technique is often used when multiple labor unions
in the same corporation join forces to gain contract concessions
for their workers. It can also be seen in the tendency of
corporations within one industry to form trade associations to
lobby for their position. Although the various members of a
coalition need not agree on everything—indeed, they may be
competitors—sufficient agreement on the problem under consideration
is necessary as a basis for action.
Although other power tactics could be discussed, these examples
serve to illustrate the diversity of techniques available to those
interested in acquiring and exercising power in organizational
situations. In reviewing the major research carried out on the
topic of power, Pfeffer states:
If there is one concluding message, it is that it is probably
effective, and it is certainly normal that these managers do behave
as politicians. It is even better that some of them are quite
effective at it. In situations in which technologies are uncertain,
preferences are conflicting, perceptions are selective and biased,
and information processing capacities are constrained, the model of
an effective politician may be an appropriate one for both the
individual and for the organization in the long run.
Symbols of Managerial Power
How do we know when a manager has power in an organizational
setting? Harvard professor Rosabeth Moss Kanter has identified
several of the more common symbols of managerial power. For
example, managers have power to the extent that they can intercede
favorably on behalf of someone in trouble with the organization.
Have you ever noticed that when several people commit the same
mistake, some don’t get punished? Perhaps someone is watching over
them.
Moreover, managers have power when they can get a desirable
placement for a talented subordinate or get approval for
expenditures beyond their budget. Other manifestations of power
include the ability to secure above-average salary increases for
subordinates and the ability to get items on the agenda at policy
meetings.
And we can see the extent of managerial power when someone can
gain quick access to top decision makers or can get early
information about decisions and policy shifts. In other words, who
can get through to the boss, and who cannot? Who is “connected,”
and who is not?
Finally, power is evident when top decision makers seek out the
opinions of a particular manager on important questions. Who gets
invited to important meetings, and who does not? Who does the boss
say “hello” to when he enters the room? Through such actions, the
organization sends clear signals concerning who has power and who
does not. In this way, the organization reinforces or at least
condones the power structure in existence.
The Ethical Use of Power
People are often uncomfortable discussing the topic of power,
which implies that somehow they see the exercise of power as
unseemly. On the contrary, the question is not whether power
tactics are or are not ethical; rather, the question is
which tactics are appropriate and which are not. The use
of power in groups and companies is a fact of organizational life
that all employees must accept. In doing so, however, all employees
have a right to know that the exercise of power within the
organization will be governed by ethical standards that prevent
abuse or exploitation.
Several guidelines for the ethical use of power can be
identified. These can be arranged according to our previous
discussion of the five bases of power, as shown in Table
\(\PageIndex{1}\). As will be noted, several techniques are
available that accomplish their aims without compromising ethical
standards. For example, a manager using reward power can verify
subordinate compliance with work directives, ensure that all
requests are both feasible and reasonable, make only ethical or
proper requests, offer rewards that are valued by employees, and
ensure that all rewards for good performance are credible and
reasonably attainable.
| The Ethical
Use of Power |
| Basis of
Power |
Guidelines for
Use |
| Source:
Adapted from Gary A. Yukl, Leadership in Organizations,
8th edition 2013 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.; Pearson), pp.
44–58. |
| Referent power |
- Treat subordinates fairly
- Defend subordinates’ interests
- Be sensitive to subordinates’ needs, feelings
- Select subordinates similar to oneself
- Engage in role modeling
|
| Expert power |
- Promote image of expertise
- Maintain credibility
- Act confident and decisive
- Keep informed
- Recognize employee concerns
- Avoid threatening subordinates’ self-esteem
|
| Legitimate power |
- Be cordial and polite
- Be confident
- Be clear and follow up to verify understanding
- Make sure request is appropriate
- Explain reasons for request
- Follow proper channels
- Exercise power regularly
- Enforce compliance
- Be sensitive to subordinates’ concerns
|
| Reward power |
- Verify compliance
- Make feasible, reasonable requests
- Make only ethical, proper requests
- Offer rewards desired by subordinates
- Offer only credible rewards
|
| Coercive power |
- Inform subordinates of rules and penalties
- Warn before punishing
- Administer punishment consistently and uniformly
- Understand the situation before acting
- Maintain credibility
- Fit punishment to the infraction
- Punish in private
|
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) (Attribution:
Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
license)
Even coercive power can be used without jeopardizing personal
integrity. For example, a manager can make sure that all employees
know the rules and penalties for rule infractions, provide warnings
before punishing, administer punishments fairly and uniformly, and
so forth. The point here is that managers have at their disposal
numerous tactics that they can employ without crossing over into
questionable managerial behavior. In view of the increasing number
of lawsuits filed by employees for harmful practices, it seems wise
for a manager to consider his behaviors before acting; this will
help ensure the highest ethical standards.
Ethics in practice
Investing the Challenger Disaster
The January 1986 explosion of the space shuttle Challenger, at a
cost of seven lives, has been analyzed from several managerial
standpoints: poor decision-making, poor management control, and
poor leadership have all been blamed. We can also see in this
tragedy an example of the unethical use of organizational
power.
It has been determined that the explosion that doomed the space
shuttle was caused by poorly designed seals on the booster rockets.
The boosters were manufactured by Morton Thiokol, a major defense
contractor. When the U.S. Congress initiated its investigation of
the causes of the disaster, it found several disturbing facts. To
begin with, several Morton Thiokol engineers had warned that the
boosters were unsafe early in the design stage, but no one
listened. Once the boosters were in production, engineers again
warned of possible problems, but to no avail. The company kept the
information quiet.
Equally disturbing was the fact that after two company engineers
testified in the congressional hearing, they were abruptly
transferred to undesirable assignments elsewhere in the company.
When asked by Congress whether they thought their transfers were in
retaliation for their whistleblowing, both engineers responded yes.
One noted, “I feel I was set aside so I would not have contact with
the people from NASA.” The company had, in effect, used its power
to try to isolate those who talked freely with the congressional
investigators. In its defense, Morton Thiokol responded that it had
demoted no one as a result of the investigation. “We’ve changed a
lot of duties . . . because we’re reorganizing,” a management
representative said.
Sources:
A. E. Tenbrussel and M. Bazerman, Blind Spots: Why we Fail to
Do What’s Right and What to Do About It,” (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press), © 2012
A. J. McDonald, “Ethics Lessons Learned From the Challenger
Disaster,” National Society of Professional Engineers,
July 17, 2015
“Two Critics of Shuttle Perished,” Register-Guard, May 11,
1986, pp. 1 and 4.
concept Check
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How is power used in organizations?
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How can managers use strategy to counteract the negative use of
power in organizations?
