We’ve seen that power comes from many sources. One major source
relates to who you know and how much access you have to information
within your organization. Social networks are visual maps of
relationships between individuals. They are vital parts of
organizational life as well as important when you are first looking
for a job. For example, if you are interested in being hired by
Proctor & Gamble, you might call upon your social network—the
network of people you know—to find the people who can help you
accomplish this task. You might ask your network if they know
anyone at Proctor & Gamble. If you did so, the people you’d
call on aren’t just your friends and family—they’re part of your
informal network. In fact, research finds that 75% to 95% of all
jobs are never formally advertised but are filled through such
social networks (Hansen, 2008).
Much of the work that gets done in organizations is done through
informal networks as well. Networks serve three important
functions. First, they deliver private information. Second, they
allow individuals to gain access to diverse skills sets. Third,
they can help create power.
Organizations can conduct a social network analysis (SNA), a systematic
effort to examine the structure of social relationships in a group.
Their purpose is to uncover the informal connections between
people. SNA dates back to 1934 when Joseph Moreno introduced the
tools of sociometry. More recently, the advent of computers has
made SNA possible on large networks. In the past decade, SNA has
become widely used across fields.
Conducting SNA
SNA can be conducted either directly or indirectly. The indirect
way is to analyze e-mails between people. For example, which
employees e-mail each other? How often? Who replies to whom?
Another technique is to observe a group in action to see which
employees talk to each other and who approaches whom for what.
Additional, nonintrusive options are to look at project structures
of billable hours such as determining which individuals regularly
work together. Direct approaches to SNA involve doing a survey that
asks questions directly (Cross et al., 2001). For example, the
survey might ask individuals, “Who would you go to for technical
information? Who can you rely on to give you the pulse of the
company? Who do you trust to keep your best interests in mind?” SNA
can reveal who is trusted, important in decision making (that is,
to whom do people turn for advice before making an important
decision?), and innovative (“With whom are you most likely to
discuss a new idea?”). The direct approach is likely to be more
targeted, but some people may see it as an unwanted intrusion.
Analyzing Network Ties and Key Network Roles
Once the data is collected, SNA software is used to create the
maps for analysis. The maps draw incoming and outgoing arrows
between people to show the number of ties coming into a person
(contacts that the person receives) and the number of ties outgoing
(contacts that the person initiates). There are three key roles in
a network. Central
connectors are people linked to the greatest number of
people. Boundary
spanners are people who connect one network to another
within the company or even across organizations. Peripheral
specialists have special expertise that can be drawn
upon even though they often work independently of the group.
Analysis: Strong and Weak Ties
You can recognize the strength of ties between people by
counting the frequency of ties. The more interactions people have,
the stronger the ties those individuals have with each other.
Strong
ties often indicate emotional support, not just
informational support between people. Ties that are reciprocated
tend to be stronger as well. Weak ties are characterized by less frequent
interaction and often do not have as much emotional attachment, but
they are also easier to maintain, and therefore people can have
more of them. Weak ties are particularly useful for innovation,
because people who are good friends tend to see the same
information, whereas people who are merely acquaintances are likely
to be exposed to different information. Thus, a casual encounter
may spark that creative idea. Social networks tend to be informal,
but by doing an SNA, the company can harness their power to help
improve communication throughout the company (such as by making
sure people have the information to share) and to help generate and
spread innovation (by giving information to the boundary-spanning
people who will pass it on beyond their work group). Social
networks serve to promote collaboration, improve new product
development, and respond to emergencies or unusual circumstances
quickly (Cross, Liedtka, & Weiss, 2005).
Social networks connect people with others. Consider networking
Web sites such as Facebook or LinkedIn, where being connected with
many people makes you more visible. This is becoming more and more
salient as 80% of 12- to 17-year-olds use MySpace at least weekly,
and over 40,000 MySpace groups are devoted to companies and
colleagues (Frauenheim, 2007). In business, the more central you
are, the more power you will have. The closer you are to more
people, the more powerful you are (Cross, Parker, & Cross,
2004). If you are the person who many people link to and you serve
as a node between people, you have brokering power—you can
introduce people to each other. People high on this “betweenness”
are also in a position to withhold information from one person to
the next, which can happen during power plays. You also have a
greater number of people to call on when you need something, which
makes you less dependent on any one person. The more ties you have
that are incoming (toward you), the more trusted you are.
Social network analysis shows who communicates with whom, who
knows whom, and where gaps in communication or collaboration may
exist. After conducting a network analysis, organizations can take
actions to modify people’s roles or responsibilities in ways that
improve communication or diffuse innovation throughout the
organization more effectively by putting people or departments in
touch with each other.
There are several simple steps you can take to help build your
own social network. For example, you can go to lunch with someone
new. You can also try to do more to encourage, help, and share with
others. You can seek information outside your own class or work
group. You can spend time with people from work outside work. All
these suggestions are effective ways to naturally build your social
network.
Key Takeaways
Social networks make up a key part of organizations. A social
network analysis (SNA) involves tracing who interacts with whom.
Central connectors have a large number of contacts. Boundary
spanners connect to several networks of people. Peripheral
specialists often work independently. Strong and weak ties can both
be helpful for gathering information and building one’s
network.
Exercises
Have you ever thought about your own social network before?
What do you think about it now?
Do you think the direct or indirect approach to doing a social
network analysis is the most accurate?
Do you think it is ethical to play golf or tennis with
coworkers to build your social network? Why or why not?
How have computers influenced social networking?
References
Cross, R., Liedtka, J., & Weiss, L. (2005). A practical guide to social networks. Harvard Business Review, 83(3), 124–132.
Cross, R. L., Parker, A., & Cross, R. (2004). The hidden power of social networks: Understanding how
work really gets done in organizations. Harvard, MA: Harvard
Business Publishing.
Cross, R., Parker, A., Prusak, L., & Borgatti, S. P. (2001).
Knowing what we know: Supporting knowledge creation and sharing in
social networks. Organizational Dynamics
30(2), 100–120.