Glossary

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Glossary Entries
Word(s)	Definition	Image	Caption	Link	Source
acceleration clause	A contract clause providing that the entire amount owing in debt becomes due if one payment is missed.
acceleration clause	A contract clause providing that the entire amount owing in debt becomes due if one payment is missed.
acceptance	Assent to the terms of the offer.
acceptance	Assent to the terms of the offer.
accession	Something that is added to what one already possesses.
accession	Something that is added to what one already possesses.
accord and satisfaction	An agreement to substitute a new contract for a disputed one; when executed, the accord is satisfied.
accord and satisfaction	An agreement to substitute a new contract for a disputed one; when executed, the accord is satisfied.
accord and satisfaction	The settlement of a dispute by offering up less consideration than demanded in exchange for extinguishing the obligation. The original obligation remains viable until the accord is performed.
accord and satisfaction	The settlement of a dispute by offering up less consideration than demanded in exchange for extinguishing the obligation. The original obligation remains viable until the accord is performed.
administrative agencies	Governmental units, either state or federal, that have specialized expertise and authority over some area of the economy.
administrative agencies	Governmental units, either state or federal, that have specialized expertise and authority over some area of the economy.
administrative law judge	The primary hearing officer in an administrative agency, who provides the initial ruling of the agency (often called an order) in any contested proceeding.
administrative law judge	The primary hearing officer in an administrative agency, who provides the initial ruling of the agency (often called an order) in any contested proceeding.
administrative law judge	The presiding officer of an administrative hearing.
administrative law judge	The presiding officer of an administrative hearing.
Administrative Procedure Act (APA)	The federal act that governs all agency procedures in both hearings and rulemaking.
Administrative Procedure Act (APA)	The federal act that governs all agency procedures in both hearings and rulemaking.
Affirmative action	Actions by an employer, either court-ordered or voluntary, that are designed to make up for past discrimination by hiring or promoting previously disadvantaged classes of workers.
Affirmative action	Actions by an employer, either court-ordered or voluntary, that are designed to make up for past discrimination by hiring or promoting previously disadvantaged classes of workers.
age of majority	When a person is old enough to make his or her contracts unavoidable on account of age.
age of majority	When a person is old enough to make his or her contracts unavoidable on account of age.
agency coupled with an interest	An agency in which the agent has an interest in the property regarding which he or she is acting on the principal’s behalf.
agency coupled with an interest	An agency in which the agent has an interest in the property regarding which he or she is acting on the principal’s behalf.
aggregate theory	The theory that a business firm is not an entity but rather a collection of individual owners who bind themselves together to share profits.
aggregate theory	The theory that a business firm is not an entity but rather a collection of individual owners who bind themselves together to share profits.
anticipatory breach (or repudiation)	A communication that informs a party that the obligations of the original contract will not be fulfilled when due; gives rise to an immediate right to sue.
anticipatory breach (or repudiation)	A communication that informs a party that the obligations of the original contract will not be fulfilled when due; gives rise to an immediate right to sue.
apparent authority	In agency, the situation in which a principal leads a third party to believe that an agent has authority to bind the principal, even where the agent lacks the actual authority to bind the principal.
apparent authority	In agency, the situation in which a principal leads a third party to believe that an agent has authority to bind the principal, even where the agent lacks the actual authority to bind the principal.
appellate jurisdiction	the jurisdiction of an appellate court to review whether the parties received a fair trial in accordance with applicable law. Appellate jurisdiction does not include hearing witnesses or receiving new evidence.
appellate jurisdiction	the jurisdiction of an appellate court to review whether the parties received a fair trial in accordance with applicable law. Appellate jurisdiction does not include hearing witnesses or receiving new evidence.
appraisal rights	If a shareholder has the right to vote on a corporate plan to merge, consolidate, or sell all or substantially all of its assets, that shareholder has the right to dissent and demand compensation.
appraisal rights	If a shareholder has the right to vote on a corporate plan to merge, consolidate, or sell all or substantially all of its assets, that shareholder has the right to dissent and demand compensation.
Arbitration	A process agreed to by disputing parties, involving an arbitrator or arbitral panel (usually three), in which a final and binding award is made, enforceable through the courts if necessary.
Arbitration	A process agreed to by disputing parties, involving an arbitrator or arbitral panel (usually three), in which a final and binding award is made, enforceable through the courts if necessary.
arson	The intentional setting of a fire to any building, whether commercial or residential, and whether or not for the purpose of collecting insurance proceeds.
arson	The intentional setting of a fire to any building, whether commercial or residential, and whether or not for the purpose of collecting insurance proceeds.
Article 2	That part of the Uniform Commercial Code dealing with the sale of goods.
Article 2	That part of the Uniform Commercial Code dealing with the sale of goods.
assault	An attempt to commit a battery, or the deliberate placing of another in fear of receiving an immediate battery.
assault	An attempt to commit a battery, or the deliberate placing of another in fear of receiving an immediate battery.
Assignment	The transfer of any rights in a contract of insurance.
Assignment	The transfer of any rights in a contract of insurance.
assignment for the benefit of creditors	The debtor assigns property to a trustee to sell for creditors.
assignment for the benefit of creditors	The debtor assigns property to a trustee to sell for creditors.
assignor	One who agrees to allow another to receive the benefit of a contract.
assignor	One who agrees to allow another to receive the benefit of a contract.
assignor’s warranties	Promises, express or implied, made by an assignor to the assignee about the merits of the assignment.
assignor’s warranties	Promises, express or implied, made by an assignor to the assignee about the merits of the assignment.
assumption of risk	A defense to a plaintiff’s action in tort where the plaintiff has knowingly and voluntarily entered into a risky activity that results in injury.
assumption of risk	A defense to a plaintiff’s action in tort where the plaintiff has knowingly and voluntarily entered into a risky activity that results in injury.
Attachment	The process by which a security interest becomes enforceable against the debtor with respect to the collateral.
Attachment	The process by which a security interest becomes enforceable against the debtor with respect to the collateral.
attachment lien	A judicial lien imposed to preserve property during litigation.
attachment lien	A judicial lien imposed to preserve property during litigation.
authorized shares	The maximum number of shares of stock that a company can issue, although management will typically keep the amount higher than those actually issued.
authorized shares	The maximum number of shares of stock that a company can issue, although management will typically keep the amount higher than those actually issued.
automatic perfection	Perfection by mere attachment.
automatic perfection	Perfection by mere attachment.
battery	The unlawful application of force to another person. The force need not be violent.
battery	The unlawful application of force to another person. The force need not be violent.
beyond a reasonable doubt	The prosecutor must prove how each element of the offense charged is “beyond a reasonable doubt.”
beyond a reasonable doubt	The prosecutor must prove how each element of the offense charged is “beyond a reasonable doubt.”
bilateral contract	A contract in which each party makes a promise to the other.
bilateral contract	A contract in which each party makes a promise to the other.
blue sky law	A state law that regulates the offering and sale of securities to protect the public from fraud.
blue sky law	A state law that regulates the offering and sale of securities to protect the public from fraud.
bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQs)	Employers may require that employees be of a certain religion, sex, or national origin where that requirement is made in good faith and goes to the essence of the business. Race and color cannot be BFOQs.
bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQs)	Employers may require that employees be of a certain religion, sex, or national origin where that requirement is made in good faith and goes to the essence of the business. Race and color cannot be BFOQs.
bond	A debt security to raise corporate funds where the corporation pays periodic interest (the coupon rate) and the face value at maturity.
bond	A debt security to raise corporate funds where the corporation pays periodic interest (the coupon rate) and the face value at maturity.
breach of the duty of due care	Any act that fails to meet a standard of the person’s duty of due care toward others. The standard is usually described as the standard of behavior that is expected of a hypothetical “reasonable person” under the circumstances. Certain professionals, however, may be held to a higher standard than the ordinary person.
breach of the duty of due care	Any act that fails to meet a standard of the person’s duty of due care toward others. The standard is usually described as the standard of behavior that is expected of a hypothetical “reasonable person” under the circumstances. Certain professionals, however, may be held to a higher standard than the ordinary person.
Bribery	A secret payment to another to get them to favor the payer of the bribe, or his business organization. A bribe could offered in a commercial transaction, which usually raises ethical issues, or could be offered to get a public official to act (or ignore a criminal act) in favor of the person or firm paying. Bribery of a state or federal public official is generally a criminal offense, both for the bribe payer and the official accepting the bribe.
Bribery	A secret payment to another to get them to favor the payer of the bribe, or his business organization. A bribe could offered in a commercial transaction, which usually raises ethical issues, or could be offered to get a public official to act (or ignore a criminal act) in favor of the person or firm paying. Bribery of a state or federal public official is generally a criminal offense, both for the bribe payer and the official accepting the bribe.
Burglary	The crime of breaking and entering the dwelling place of another with intent to commit a felony therein.
Burglary	The crime of breaking and entering the dwelling place of another with intent to commit a felony therein.
business corporation	In contrast to public (municipal), professional, or nonprofit corporations, business corporations are of two types: publicly held and closely held, referring to how the stock is held within the corporation.
business corporation	In contrast to public (municipal), professional, or nonprofit corporations, business corporations are of two types: publicly held and closely held, referring to how the stock is held within the corporation.
business judgment rule	Presumption given by the courts to corporate directors that their actions were informed and done with good faith and with an honest belief that the actions were in the best interests of the corporation.
business judgment rule	Presumption given by the courts to corporate directors that their actions were informed and done with good faith and with an honest belief that the actions were in the best interests of the corporation.
buyback	A process whereby a corporation reacquires or repurchases its shares (the shares then become treasury shares).
buyback	A process whereby a corporation reacquires or repurchases its shares (the shares then become treasury shares).
case law	Law decided by judges as recorded in cases and published.
case law	Law decided by judges as recorded in cases and published.
causa mortis	A gift made by someone in contemplating death in the near future.
causa mortis	A gift made by someone in contemplating death in the near future.
causes of action	In a complaint, a legal basis on which a claim is predicated. The legal basis can be a Constitutional law, a statute, a regulation, or a prior judicial decision that creates a precedent to be followed.
causes of action	In a complaint, a legal basis on which a claim is predicated. The legal basis can be a Constitutional law, a statute, a regulation, or a prior judicial decision that creates a precedent to be followed.
certificate of limited partnership	The document filed with the appropriate state authority that, when approved, marks the legal existence of the limited partnership.
certificate of limited partnership	The document filed with the appropriate state authority that, when approved, marks the legal existence of the limited partnership.
certification mark	A mark placed on a product or used in connection with a service that signifies the product or service as having met the standard set by the certifying entity.
certification mark	A mark placed on a product or used in connection with a service that signifies the product or service as having met the standard set by the certifying entity.
charging order	A court order directing a partnership to pay a partner’s judgment creditor the distribution that the partner would normally receive.
charging order	A court order directing a partnership to pay a partner’s judgment creditor the distribution that the partner would normally receive.
Chattel mortgage	A security device by which a mortgagee takes security interest in personal property of the mortgagor; mostly superseded by other security arrangements under UCC Article 9.
Chattel mortgage	A security device by which a mortgagee takes security interest in personal property of the mortgagor; mostly superseded by other security arrangements under UCC Article 9.
circumstantial evidence	Evidence that is not “direct” but that provides judges and juries with facts that tend to show legal liability.
circumstantial evidence	Evidence that is not “direct” but that provides judges and juries with facts that tend to show legal liability.
civil penalties	A term used to describe when a state entity, government agency, or private party seeks monetary relief, fines, and/or restitution for wrongdoing by another.
civil penalties	A term used to describe when a state entity, government agency, or private party seeks monetary relief, fines, and/or restitution for wrongdoing by another.
closed shop	A firm where potential employees must belong to a union before being hired and must remain a member during employment.
closed shop	A firm where potential employees must belong to a union before being hired and must remain a member during employment.
closely held corporation	A corporation with few shareholders, so that separation of ownership and control may be less pronounced than in a publicly held corporation or even nonexistent.
closely held corporation	A corporation with few shareholders, so that separation of ownership and control may be less pronounced than in a publicly held corporation or even nonexistent.
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)	A compilation of all final agency rules. The CFR has the same legal effect as a bill passed by Congress and signed into law by the president.
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)	A compilation of all final agency rules. The CFR has the same legal effect as a bill passed by Congress and signed into law by the president.
coinsurance clause	In property insurance, a clause that requires the insured to maintain insurance equal to a specified percentage of the property value.
coinsurance clause	In property insurance, a clause that requires the insured to maintain insurance equal to a specified percentage of the property value.
Collateral	Property given as security for a debt.
Collateral	Property given as security for a debt.
collective bargaining agreement	The contract between the union and the employer.
collective bargaining agreement	The contract between the union and the employer.
commerce clause	Article I, Section 8, of the US Constitution is generally regarded as the legal authority by which the federal government can make law that governs commerce among the states and with foreign nations.
commerce clause	Article I, Section 8, of the US Constitution is generally regarded as the legal authority by which the federal government can make law that governs commerce among the states and with foreign nations.
Commerce Clause	Provision in the US Constitution that gives Congress the power to regulate commerce between the states.
Commerce Clause	Provision in the US Constitution that gives Congress the power to regulate commerce between the states.
commercial impracticability	Relief from contract obligations may be granted when performance has been rendered excessively difficult, expensive, or harmful by an unforeseen contingency.
commercial impracticability	Relief from contract obligations may be granted when performance has been rendered excessively difficult, expensive, or harmful by an unforeseen contingency.
Common law	Judicial decisions that do not involve interpretation of statutes, regulations, treaties, or the Constitution.
Common law	Judicial decisions that do not involve interpretation of statutes, regulations, treaties, or the Constitution.
Common stock	A security that represents ownership in a corporation and allows the holder to elect a board of directors.
Common stock	A security that represents ownership in a corporation and allows the holder to elect a board of directors.
comparative negligence	In most states, the negligence of the plaintiff is weighed against the negligence of the defendant, and where the defendant’s negligence outweighs the plaintiff’s, the plaintiff can recover against the defendant even though the plaintiff has caused some of his or her own injuries.
comparative negligence	In most states, the negligence of the plaintiff is weighed against the negligence of the defendant, and where the defendant’s negligence outweighs the plaintiff’s, the plaintiff can recover against the defendant even though the plaintiff has caused some of his or her own injuries.
compensatory damages	An award of money damages to make the plaintiff whole, as opposed to additional damages (punitive) that punish the defendant or make an example of defendant.
compensatory damages	An award of money damages to make the plaintiff whole, as opposed to additional damages (punitive) that punish the defendant or make an example of defendant.
compensatory damages	In contract, damages paid to compensate the nonbreaching party for the direct loss suffered.
compensatory damages	In contract, damages paid to compensate the nonbreaching party for the direct loss suffered.
composition	Creditors’ agreement to accept less than the face amount owing.
composition	Creditors’ agreement to accept less than the face amount owing.
composition of matter	A new arrangement of elements such that the resulting compound, such as a metal alloy, is not found in nature.
composition of matter	A new arrangement of elements such that the resulting compound, such as a metal alloy, is not found in nature.
compulsory unionism	Employers must not discriminate where there is a closed shop, a union shop, maintenance-of-membership agreements, or preferential hiring agreements.
compulsory unionism	Employers must not discriminate where there is a closed shop, a union shop, maintenance-of-membership agreements, or preferential hiring agreements.
Computer crime	Any crime (usually theft of some sort, or sabotage) committed with the aid of a computer.
Computer crime	Any crime (usually theft of some sort, or sabotage) committed with the aid of a computer.
concealment	The failure of an insured to set forth all the material facts in applying for insurance.
concealment	The failure of an insured to set forth all the material facts in applying for insurance.
concession theory	Incorporation was a concession given by royal grant of a sovereign.
concession theory	Incorporation was a concession given by royal grant of a sovereign.
concurrent jurisdiction	When both state and federal courts have subject matter jurisdiction of a case, there is concurrent jurisdiction. Only one court will hear the case between the parties and will hear all causes of action, whether based on state or federal law.
concurrent jurisdiction	When both state and federal courts have subject matter jurisdiction of a case, there is concurrent jurisdiction. Only one court will hear the case between the parties and will hear all causes of action, whether based on state or federal law.
condition	An uncertain future act or event whose occurrence or nonoccurrence determines the rights or obligations of a party under a legal instrument, especially a contract.
condition	An uncertain future act or event whose occurrence or nonoccurrence determines the rights or obligations of a party under a legal instrument, especially a contract.
condition precedent	A term in a contract that something has to happen before the obligation to perform the contract ripens.
condition precedent	A term in a contract that something has to happen before the obligation to perform the contract ripens.
condition subsequent	An event that terminates an existing duty of performance.
condition subsequent	An event that terminates an existing duty of performance.
conduit theory	The theory that a business entity does not itself owe taxes on income; it only acts as a pass-through for its members to receive income.
conduit theory	The theory that a business entity does not itself owe taxes on income; it only acts as a pass-through for its members to receive income.
confession of judgment	A written agreement in which the defendant in a lawsuit admits liability and accepts the amount of agreed-upon damages that must be paid to the plaintiff.
confession of judgment	A written agreement in which the defendant in a lawsuit admits liability and accepts the amount of agreed-upon damages that must be paid to the plaintiff.
confusion	Where personal property is intermingled, negligently or intentionally, with the personal property of others.
confusion	Where personal property is intermingled, negligently or intentionally, with the personal property of others.
conscious capitalism	Companies that practice conscious capitalism embrace the idea that profit and prosperity can and must go hand in hand with social justice and environmental stewardship.
conscious capitalism	Companies that practice conscious capitalism embrace the idea that profit and prosperity can and must go hand in hand with social justice and environmental stewardship.
consequential damages	Those losses or injuries which are a result of a breach of contract but are not direct and immediate.
consequential damages	Those losses or injuries which are a result of a breach of contract but are not direct and immediate.
consideration	The surrender of any legal right (a detriment) in return for the promise of some benefit in return.
consideration	The surrender of any legal right (a detriment) in return for the promise of some benefit in return.
Consideration	The surrender of any legal right (a detriment) in return for the promise of some benefit in return.
Consideration	The surrender of any legal right (a detriment) in return for the promise of some benefit in return.
Consolidation	A corporate expansion similar to a merger but resulting in an entity that is an entirely new corporation.
Consolidation	A corporate expansion similar to a merger but resulting in an entity that is an entirely new corporation.
constituency statutes	Statutes that permit corporate directors to take into account interests other than maximizing shareholder value.
constituency statutes	Statutes that permit corporate directors to take into account interests other than maximizing shareholder value.
Constitutions	The founding documents of any nation-state’s legal system.
Constitutions	The founding documents of any nation-state’s legal system.
consumer transactions	A contract for household or domestic purposes, not commercial purposes.
consumer transactions	A contract for household or domestic purposes, not commercial purposes.
contract	A legally enforceable set of promises.
contract	A legally enforceable set of promises.
contract of adhesion	A contract presented to the offeree to take or leave without bargaining.
contract of adhesion	A contract presented to the offeree to take or leave without bargaining.
contribution	The sharing of a loss or payment by two or more persons or sureties.
contribution	The sharing of a loss or payment by two or more persons or sureties.
Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG)	An international body of contract law.
Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG)	An international body of contract law.
conversion	In bankruptcy, changing the chapter number filed from one to another.
conversion	In bankruptcy, changing the chapter number filed from one to another.
core values	Values that are generally recognized as positive ethical characteristics of an individual or a business organization. People may have strong views about other kinds of ethical values, but core values are more widely accepted.
core values	Values that are generally recognized as positive ethical characteristics of an individual or a business organization. People may have strong views about other kinds of ethical values, but core values are more widely accepted.
corporate charter	The basic document of incorporation filed in the appropriate public office, also referred to as articles of incorporation.
corporate charter	The basic document of incorporation filed in the appropriate public office, also referred to as articles of incorporation.
Corporate insiders	A corporate director, officer, or shareholder with more than 10 percent of a registered security who through influence of position obtains knowledge that may be used to gain an unfair advantage to the detriment of others. The definition has been broadened to include relatives and others.
Corporate insiders	A corporate director, officer, or shareholder with more than 10 percent of a registered security who through influence of position obtains knowledge that may be used to gain an unfair advantage to the detriment of others. The definition has been broadened to include relatives and others.
corporation by estoppel	Use of the equitable principle of estoppel by a court to treat a business as a corporation.
corporation by estoppel	Use of the equitable principle of estoppel by a court to treat a business as a corporation.
corporation is a “person”	When corporations are granted the same rights as natural persons.
corporation is a “person”	When corporations are granted the same rights as natural persons.
counteroffer	A response to an offer that changes its terms.
counteroffer	A response to an offer that changes its terms.
coupon payments	The interest payment made by a corporation to the holder of a bond.
coupon payments	The interest payment made by a corporation to the holder of a bond.
course of performance	Systematic and uniform conduct in which parties engage after they enter into a contract.
course of performance	Systematic and uniform conduct in which parties engage after they enter into a contract.
covenant not to sue	An agreement not to pursue legal action.
covenant not to sue	An agreement not to pursue legal action.
credit bureau	A private firm that maintains consumer credit data files and provides credit information to authorized users for a fee.
credit bureau	A private firm that maintains consumer credit data files and provides credit information to authorized users for a fee.
creditor beneficiary	One whom the party paying for the other’s performance intends to benefit as payment for a debt or obligation.
creditor beneficiary	One whom the party paying for the other’s performance intends to benefit as payment for a debt or obligation.
creditors’ composition	An agreement among creditors, each accepting less than full payment from a debtor so that each gets something.
creditors’ composition	An agreement among creditors, each accepting less than full payment from a debtor so that each gets something.
criminal law	That body of law in any nation-state that defines offenses against society as a whole, punishable by fines, forfeitures, or imprisonment.
criminal law	That body of law in any nation-state that defines offenses against society as a whole, punishable by fines, forfeitures, or imprisonment.
criminal prosecution	The process of bringing a legal action against a defendant for criminal behavior.
criminal prosecution	The process of bringing a legal action against a defendant for criminal behavior.
Cumulative voting	Shareholder voting method permitting the holder to distribute his total votes in any manner that he chooses—all for one candidate or several shares for different candidates.
Cumulative voting	Shareholder voting method permitting the holder to distribute his total votes in any manner that he chooses—all for one candidate or several shares for different candidates.
de facto corporation	A corporation that exists in fact, though it has not met all of the necessary legal requirements.
de facto corporation	A corporation that exists in fact, though it has not met all of the necessary legal requirements.
Debtor	One who owes money or a duty of performance to another.
Debtor	One who owes money or a duty of performance to another.
debtor’s estate	The intangible entity containing all the debtor’s nonexempt property and liabilities.
debtor’s estate	The intangible entity containing all the debtor’s nonexempt property and liabilities.
deed of trust	A type of mortgage where title to the property is nominally in a trustee, who sells if the buyer defaults; it provides for a nonjudicial foreclosure.
deed of trust	A type of mortgage where title to the property is nominally in a trustee, who sells if the buyer defaults; it provides for a nonjudicial foreclosure.
definiteness	The requirement that contracts be certain enough to determine liabilities.
definiteness	The requirement that contracts be certain enough to determine liabilities.
delectus personae	The theory that a new partner can only be admitted to a firm with the unanimous consent of all.
delectus personae	The theory that a new partner can only be admitted to a firm with the unanimous consent of all.
delegatee	One to whom the duty to perform a contract is delegated.
delegatee	One to whom the duty to perform a contract is delegated.
delegation doctrine	As a matter of constitutional law, the delegation doctrine declares that an agency can only exercise that power delegated to it by a constitutional authority.
delegation doctrine	As a matter of constitutional law, the delegation doctrine declares that an agency can only exercise that power delegated to it by a constitutional authority.
delegator	One who delegates.
delegator	One who delegates.
demand for reasonable assurances	A demand to be reassured that contractual performance will be forthcoming when reasonable grounds for insecurity arise with respect to the performance of the other party; failure to get such is an anticipatory breach.
demand for reasonable assurances	A demand to be reassured that contractual performance will be forthcoming when reasonable grounds for insecurity arise with respect to the performance of the other party; failure to get such is an anticipatory breach.
deontology	A theory that judges the morality of choices not by results (or “goods”) but by adherence to moral norms. The duty to act in accord with these norms is one that bears no relation to the expected consequences of the action.
deontology	A theory that judges the morality of choices not by results (or “goods”) but by adherence to moral norms. The duty to act in accord with these norms is one that bears no relation to the expected consequences of the action.
derivative action	Lawsuit brought on behalf of the corporation by a shareholder when the directors refuse to act.
derivative action	Lawsuit brought on behalf of the corporation by a shareholder when the directors refuse to act.
directed verdict	At the close of one party’s evidence, the other party may move for a directed verdict, or renew that motion at the close of all parties’ evidence. A judge will direct a verdict if there is no real issue of fact for reasonable jurors to consider and if the law as applied to the facts in evidence clearly favors the party who requests the directed verdict.
directed verdict	At the close of one party’s evidence, the other party may move for a directed verdict, or renew that motion at the close of all parties’ evidence. A judge will direct a verdict if there is no real issue of fact for reasonable jurors to consider and if the law as applied to the facts in evidence clearly favors the party who requests the directed verdict.
discharge	The determination that debts are no longer owing.
discharge	The determination that debts are no longer owing.
discharge denied	Refusal of a bankruptcy court to allow discharge, usually because the debtor has acted in bad faith.
discharge denied	Refusal of a bankruptcy court to allow discharge, usually because the debtor has acted in bad faith.
disinterested director	A director who has no interest in the disputed transaction.
disinterested director	A director who has no interest in the disputed transaction.
dismissal	An order terminating a case before its normal end.
dismissal	An order terminating a case before its normal end.
disparate impact	A form of employment discrimination resulting from employer practices that appear to be neutral but that have a discriminatory impact on protected classes.
disparate impact	A form of employment discrimination resulting from employer practices that appear to be neutral but that have a discriminatory impact on protected classes.
disparate treatment	A form of employment discrimination that results when an employer intentionally discriminates against employees who are members of protected classes.
disparate treatment	A form of employment discrimination that results when an employer intentionally discriminates against employees who are members of protected classes.
Dissociation	Under RUPA, the withdrawal of a partner from the firm.
Dissociation	Under RUPA, the withdrawal of a partner from the firm.
dissolution	A legal severance or breaking up; under UPA the change in relations caused by a partner’s withdrawal from the firm.
dissolution	A legal severance or breaking up; under UPA the change in relations caused by a partner’s withdrawal from the firm.
dividend	A share of a corporation’s profits.
dividend	A share of a corporation’s profits.
doctrine of equivalents	The judicial doctrine that infringing products, processes, or machines need not be identical.
doctrine of equivalents	The judicial doctrine that infringing products, processes, or machines need not be identical.
Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act	A federal law aimed at financial reform and designed to promote financial stability, it was established to enhance the power of regulatory agencies and add additional enforcement agencies.
Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act	A federal law aimed at financial reform and designed to promote financial stability, it was established to enhance the power of regulatory agencies and add additional enforcement agencies.
donee beneficiary	A person not a party to a contract who is intended, as a gift, to benefit from its performance.
donee beneficiary	A person not a party to a contract who is intended, as a gift, to benefit from its performance.
dormant commerce clause	Even when the federal government does not act to make rules to govern matters of interstate commerce, the states may (using their police powers), but they may not do so in ways that unduly burden or discriminate against interstate commerce.
dormant commerce clause	Even when the federal government does not act to make rules to govern matters of interstate commerce, the states may (using their police powers), but they may not do so in ways that unduly burden or discriminate against interstate commerce.
due-on-sale clause	A contract clause requiring the entire mortgage amount be paid to the mortgagee if the property is sold; it prevents any assumption.
due-on-sale clause	A contract clause requiring the entire mortgage amount be paid to the mortgagee if the property is sold; it prevents any assumption.
duress	A threat of improper action to induce a person to make a contract.
duress	A threat of improper action to induce a person to make a contract.
duty of care	Fiduciary obligation upon directors and officers to act with the care an ordinarily prudent person in a like position would exercise under similar circumstances.
duty of care	Fiduciary obligation upon directors and officers to act with the care an ordinarily prudent person in a like position would exercise under similar circumstances.
duty of good faith	Fiduciary duty to act honestly and avoid violations of corporate norms and business practices.
duty of good faith	Fiduciary duty to act honestly and avoid violations of corporate norms and business practices.
duty of loyalty	Fiduciary obligation requiring loyalty of directors and officers to the corporation and its shareholders.
duty of loyalty	Fiduciary obligation requiring loyalty of directors and officers to the corporation and its shareholders.
economic strike	Employees go on strike to force an employer to give in to workers’ demands.
economic strike	Employees go on strike to force an employer to give in to workers’ demands.
election of remedies	The situation of a plaintiff in a civil lawsuit having multiple causes of action from which to choose as to how the defendant’s wrong may be righted.
election of remedies	The situation of a plaintiff in a civil lawsuit having multiple causes of action from which to choose as to how the defendant’s wrong may be righted.
embezzlement	A form of larceny in which a person entrusted with someone else’s property wrongfully takes sole possession or has the intent to take sole possession.
embezzlement	A form of larceny in which a person entrusted with someone else’s property wrongfully takes sole possession or has the intent to take sole possession.
employment at will	The common-law doctrine that allows employers to discharge an employee at any time and for any reason or for no reason. Courts have created exceptions for “bad reasons.”
employment at will	The common-law doctrine that allows employers to discharge an employee at any time and for any reason or for no reason. Courts have created exceptions for “bad reasons.”
employment discrimination	Treating employees or job applicants unequally on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex (gender), age, or disability; prohibited by federal statutes and many state statutes.
employment discrimination	Treating employees or job applicants unequally on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex (gender), age, or disability; prohibited by federal statutes and many state statutes.
entity theory	The concept of a business firm as a legal person, with existence and accountability separate from its owners.
entity theory	The concept of a business firm as a legal person, with existence and accountability separate from its owners.
entrapment	When a police officer or other government agent entices people to commit crimes they were not disposed to commit without the government agent’s suggestions and inducements.
entrapment	When a police officer or other government agent entices people to commit crimes they were not disposed to commit without the government agent’s suggestions and inducements.
Equity	Ownership interest, such as stock, in property or a business.
Equity	Ownership interest, such as stock, in property or a business.
exclusionary rule	Evidence obtained in violation of constitutional rights from the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments are generally not admissible at trial.
exclusionary rule	Evidence obtained in violation of constitutional rights from the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments are generally not admissible at trial.
exclusive dealing agreement	A contract—as between buyer and seller—where the parties agree only to deal with each other.
exclusive dealing agreement	A contract—as between buyer and seller—where the parties agree only to deal with each other.
Exculpatory clauses	A term in a contract by which one party relieves itself in advance of liability.
Exculpatory clauses	A term in a contract by which one party relieves itself in advance of liability.
executed contract	A contract that has been completed.
executed contract	A contract that has been completed.
exhaustion of administrative remedies	A requirement that anyone wishing to appeal an agency action must wait until the agency has taken final action.
exhaustion of administrative remedies	A requirement that anyone wishing to appeal an agency action must wait until the agency has taken final action.
express authority	Contractually given authority to the agent from the principal, orally or in writing, communicated to the third party.
express authority	Contractually given authority to the agent from the principal, orally or in writing, communicated to the third party.
express contract	A contract in words, orally or in writing.
express contract	A contract in words, orally or in writing.
express partnership	A partnership intentionally created and recognized, orally or in writing.
express partnership	A partnership intentionally created and recognized, orally or in writing.
express powers	Powers granted to a corporation through statute and its articles of incorporation.
express powers	Powers granted to a corporation through statute and its articles of incorporation.
express warranty	Any manifestation of the nature or quality of goods that becomes a basis of the bargain.
express warranty	Any manifestation of the nature or quality of goods that becomes a basis of the bargain.
extortion	The wrongful collection of money or something else of value by anyone by means of a threat.
extortion	The wrongful collection of money or something else of value by anyone by means of a threat.
factor	A person who pays money to receive another’s executory contractual benefits.
factor	A person who pays money to receive another’s executory contractual benefits.
Fair Credit Billing Act	A federal law (1975) to protect consumers from unfair billing practices and to provide a mechanism for addressing billing errors in open-end credit accounts, such as credit card or charge card accounts.
Fair Credit Billing Act	A federal law (1975) to protect consumers from unfair billing practices and to provide a mechanism for addressing billing errors in open-end credit accounts, such as credit card or charge card accounts.
fair use doctrine	Use of copyrighted material in criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research that does not significantly reduce the market for the copyrighted material.
fair use doctrine	Use of copyrighted material in criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research that does not significantly reduce the market for the copyrighted material.
false pretenses	A form of larceny in which the rightful owner is tricked into giving up title to his or her property.
false pretenses	A form of larceny in which the rightful owner is tricked into giving up title to his or her property.
family purpose doctrine	A doctrine under which an owner of an automobile is liable for damages to others incurred while members of his family are driving the vehicle, under the theory that the vehicle is owned for family purposes.
family purpose doctrine	A doctrine under which an owner of an automobile is liable for damages to others incurred while members of his family are driving the vehicle, under the theory that the vehicle is owned for family purposes.
federal question jurisdiction	Federal court subject matter jurisdiction based on a complaint that uses a federal statutory, regulatory, or constitutional law as a cause of action.
federal question jurisdiction	Federal court subject matter jurisdiction based on a complaint that uses a federal statutory, regulatory, or constitutional law as a cause of action.
Federal Register	The Federal Register is where all proposed administrative regulations are first published, usually inviting comment from interested parties.
Federal Register	The Federal Register is where all proposed administrative regulations are first published, usually inviting comment from interested parties.
federalism	The idea, built into the structure of the Constitution, that states and the federal government have concurrent powers. In effect, federalism is the concept of shared governance between the states and the federal government.
federalism	The idea, built into the structure of the Constitution, that states and the federal government have concurrent powers. In effect, federalism is the concept of shared governance between the states and the federal government.
Federalism	The idea, originating with the Constitution’s Founding Fathers, that the United States legal and political system would be one of governance shared between the states and the federal government.
Federalism	The idea, originating with the Constitution’s Founding Fathers, that the United States legal and political system would be one of governance shared between the states and the federal government.
fidelity bond	An assurance, generally purchased by an employer, to cover employees who are entrusted with valuable property or funds.
fidelity bond	An assurance, generally purchased by an employer, to cover employees who are entrusted with valuable property or funds.
fiduciary	A person to whom power is entrusted for the benefit of another.
fiduciary	A person to whom power is entrusted for the benefit of another.
fiduciary duty	The duty of an agent to act always in the best interest of the principal, to avoid self-dealing.
fiduciary duty	The duty of an agent to act always in the best interest of the principal, to avoid self-dealing.
fiduciary duty	The highest duty of good faith and trust, imposed on partners as to each other and the firm.
fiduciary duty	The highest duty of good faith and trust, imposed on partners as to each other and the firm.
field warehousing	Mortgage arrangement in which a lender secures its loan with a lien on items stored in a warehouse or at the debtor’s place of business, with access to the items controlled by the lender, who releases goods as they are paid for by the borrower.
field warehousing	Mortgage arrangement in which a lender secures its loan with a lien on items stored in a warehouse or at the debtor’s place of business, with access to the items controlled by the lender, who releases goods as they are paid for by the borrower.
finance charge	The total cost of credit a customer must pay on a consumer loan, including interest.
finance charge	The total cost of credit a customer must pay on a consumer loan, including interest.
financing statement	Filing of a notice in the appropriate state office to perfect a security interest.
financing statement	Filing of a notice in the appropriate state office to perfect a security interest.
firm offer	A UCC option made in writing and signed by a merchant, promising to keep an offer open; needs no consideration.
firm offer	A UCC option made in writing and signed by a merchant, promising to keep an offer open; needs no consideration.
firm offer	A signed promise made by a merchant to hold an offer open.
firm offer	A signed promise made by a merchant to hold an offer open.
fixture	An object that was once personal property that has become so affixed to land or structures that it is legally a part of the real property.
fixture	An object that was once personal property that has become so affixed to land or structures that it is legally a part of the real property.
floating lien	A lien that is expanded to cover any additional property that is acquired by the debtor while the debt is outstanding.
floating lien	A lien that is expanded to cover any additional property that is acquired by the debtor while the debt is outstanding.
Foreclosure by sale	To sell land upon buyer’s default at a public auction.
Foreclosure by sale	To sell land upon buyer’s default at a public auction.
foreign corporation	A company incorporated outside the state in which it is doing business.
foreign corporation	A company incorporated outside the state in which it is doing business.
foreign corporations	A company incorporated outside the state in which it is doing business.
foreign corporations	A company incorporated outside the state in which it is doing business.
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA)	A US law, enacted 1977, that in part prohibits US firms from bribing foreign officials to obtain or retain business.
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA)	A US law, enacted 1977, that in part prohibits US firms from bribing foreign officials to obtain or retain business.
foreseeability	In contract, the requirement that damages from a breach be proximately caused by the breach.
foreseeability	In contract, the requirement that damages from a breach be proximately caused by the breach.
Forgery	False writing of a document of legal significance (or apparent legal significance) with intent to defraud.
Forgery	False writing of a document of legal significance (or apparent legal significance) with intent to defraud.
Fraud in the execution	Causing a person to sign a legal document while that person believes he or she is signing some other type of document.
Fraud in the execution	Causing a person to sign a legal document while that person believes he or she is signing some other type of document.
Fraud in the inducement	Deceit or trick to cause someone to contract to his or her disadvantage.
Fraud in the inducement	Deceit or trick to cause someone to contract to his or her disadvantage.
fraudulent misrepresentation	Misrepresentation with the intention to deceive.
fraudulent misrepresentation	Misrepresentation with the intention to deceive.
fraudulent transfers	The transfer of an asset for less than its fair value.
fraudulent transfers	The transfer of an asset for less than its fair value.
frustration of purpose	A defense to contractual nonperformance that occurs when an unforeseen event undermines a party’s principal purpose for entering into a contract, and both parties knew of this principal purpose at the time the contract was made.
frustration of purpose	A defense to contractual nonperformance that occurs when an unforeseen event undermines a party’s principal purpose for entering into a contract, and both parties knew of this principal purpose at the time the contract was made.
gap creditors	Creditors giving credit, or lending money to a debtor, in the period between the filing of an involuntary bankruptcy petition and the entry of the order for relief.
gap creditors	Creditors giving credit, or lending money to a debtor, in the period between the filing of an involuntary bankruptcy petition and the entry of the order for relief.
Garnishment	The attachment or seizure of personal wages through a court-assisted process.
Garnishment	The attachment or seizure of personal wages through a court-assisted process.
general agent	Someone authorized to transact every kind of business for the principal.
general agent	Someone authorized to transact every kind of business for the principal.
good-faith duty	The duty to act with honesty in fact in commercial transactions.
good-faith duty	The duty to act with honesty in fact in commercial transactions.
good-faith rule	Directors’ judgment as to the value of consideration received for shares is deemed conclusive.
good-faith rule	Directors’ judgment as to the value of consideration received for shares is deemed conclusive.
gratuitous agency	An agency where the agent receives no compensation.
gratuitous agency	An agency where the agent receives no compensation.
guarantor	One who promises to pay or perform a contract obligation upon the default of another; a surety.
guarantor	One who promises to pay or perform a contract obligation upon the default of another; a surety.
guarantor	One who promises to pay or perform a contract obligation upon the default of another; a surety.
guarantor	One who promises to pay or perform a contract obligation upon the default of another; a surety.
horizontal privity	The relationship between the original supplier of a product and an ultimate user or a bystander affected by it.
horizontal privity	The relationship between the original supplier of a product and an ultimate user or a bystander affected by it.
household debt	Debt owed by consumers.
household debt	Debt owed by consumers.
hypothetical lien creditor	The trustee acts as if he or she were a lien creditor with power to defeat any unperfected security interests.
hypothetical lien creditor	The trustee acts as if he or she were a lien creditor with power to defeat any unperfected security interests.
illusory promise	The promisor actually gives up no consideration, as in “I will paint your house in June if I feel like it.”
illusory promise	The promisor actually gives up no consideration, as in “I will paint your house in June if I feel like it.”
implied authority	The authority of an agent to perform acts that are reasonably necessary to accomplish the purpose of the agency.
implied authority	The authority of an agent to perform acts that are reasonably necessary to accomplish the purpose of the agency.
Implied conditions	A provision not explicitly stated in an agreement but considered an important item.
Implied conditions	A provision not explicitly stated in an agreement but considered an important item.
implied contract	A contract that is not expressed but is inferred from the actions of the parties.
implied contract	A contract that is not expressed but is inferred from the actions of the parties.
implied partnership	A partnership that arises where parties’ behavior objectively manifests an intention to create a relationship that the law recognizes as a partnership.
implied partnership	A partnership that arises where parties’ behavior objectively manifests an intention to create a relationship that the law recognizes as a partnership.
implied powers	Corporate powers that extend beyond those powers explicitly defined as express powers.
implied powers	Corporate powers that extend beyond those powers explicitly defined as express powers.
implied private right of action	A ruling by the Supreme Court that allows individuals who have been defrauded to seek damages resulting from a violation of SEC rules.
implied private right of action	A ruling by the Supreme Court that allows individuals who have been defrauded to seek damages resulting from a violation of SEC rules.
implied warranty	A warranty imposed by law that comes along with a product automatically.
implied warranty	A warranty imposed by law that comes along with a product automatically.
implied warranty of fitness for particular purpose	A seller’s implied warranty that the goods will be suitable for the buyer’s expressed need.
implied warranty of fitness for particular purpose	A seller’s implied warranty that the goods will be suitable for the buyer’s expressed need.
implied warranty of merchantability	Merchant-seller’s implied warranty that goods are suitable for the goods’ normal uses.
implied warranty of merchantability	Merchant-seller’s implied warranty that goods are suitable for the goods’ normal uses.
Impracticability	An excuse for nonperformance of a duty where it has become unexpectedly difficult or expensive for the party who was to perform.
Impracticability	An excuse for nonperformance of a duty where it has become unexpectedly difficult or expensive for the party who was to perform.
incidental beneficiary	A person not a party to a contract who benefits from its performance but was not intended to specifically.
incidental beneficiary	A person not a party to a contract who benefits from its performance but was not intended to specifically.
incidental damages	Compensation for commercially reasonable expenses incurred as a result of the other party’s breach.
incidental damages	Compensation for commercially reasonable expenses incurred as a result of the other party’s breach.
incontestable clause	A clause in a life insurance policy that limits the insurance carrier’s right to contest insurability after a certain number of years of premium payments on the policy.
incontestable clause	A clause in a life insurance policy that limits the insurance carrier’s right to contest insurability after a certain number of years of premium payments on the policy.
indemnification	A method of protecting directors and officers whereby the corporation agrees to pay legal expenses incurred by the directors or officers.
indemnification	A method of protecting directors and officers whereby the corporation agrees to pay legal expenses incurred by the directors or officers.
independent contractor	A person who is hired to accomplish a result but is not subject to specific control by the one hiring.
independent contractor	A person who is hired to accomplish a result but is not subject to specific control by the one hiring.
indictment	A formal charge that a serious crime has been committed; where a grand jury is convened, an indictment may issue if probable cause is found.
indictment	A formal charge that a serious crime has been committed; where a grand jury is convened, an indictment may issue if probable cause is found.
indirect interlock	A situation where directors of two different companies serve jointly on the board of a third company.
indirect interlock	A situation where directors of two different companies serve jointly on the board of a third company.
infants	A person who has not reached the age of majority and who may (usually) avoid contracts on that account.
infants	A person who has not reached the age of majority and who may (usually) avoid contracts on that account.
initial public offering (IPO)	The first time a corporation offers stock for sale to the public.
initial public offering (IPO)	The first time a corporation offers stock for sale to the public.
innocent misrepresentation	A misrepresentation made by one who believes it is true.
innocent misrepresentation	A misrepresentation made by one who believes it is true.
installment contract or land contract	The buyer makes installment payments on a real estate purchase, the title shifting when all payments are made.
installment contract or land contract	The buyer makes installment payments on a real estate purchase, the title shifting when all payments are made.
insurable interest	A sufficiently substantial interest in property or someone’s life to support a contract to insure it.
insurable interest	A sufficiently substantial interest in property or someone’s life to support a contract to insure it.
integrated contract	A contract that encompasses the parties’ full understanding.
integrated contract	A contract that encompasses the parties’ full understanding.
intellectual property	Intangible personal property whose major forms are patents, copyrights, and trademarks.
intellectual property	Intangible personal property whose major forms are patents, copyrights, and trademarks.
intended beneficiary	A person not a party to a contract who was intended to benefit from it and who may sue to enforce its terms.
intended beneficiary	A person not a party to a contract who was intended to benefit from it and who may sue to enforce its terms.
investment contract	A commitment of money or capital to purchase financial instruments as a means to gain profitable returns in the form of income, interest, or the appreciation of the value of the instrument itself. It can be interpreted by the courts to be a security for purposes of the federal securities laws.
investment contract	A commitment of money or capital to purchase financial instruments as a means to gain profitable returns in the form of income, interest, or the appreciation of the value of the instrument itself. It can be interpreted by the courts to be a security for purposes of the federal securities laws.
involuntary dissolution	A state action to dissolve a corporation.
involuntary dissolution	A state action to dissolve a corporation.
joint-stock companies	Companies in which stock or company funds are held jointly.
joint-stock companies	Companies in which stock or company funds are held jointly.
judgment lien	A lien imposed to secure payment of a judgment owing.
judgment lien	A lien imposed to secure payment of a judgment owing.
judgment n.o.v.	Judgment “notwithstanding the verdict” may be awarded after the jury returns a verdict that the judge believes no rational jury could have come to. Judgment n.o.v. reverses the verdict and awards judgment to the party against whom the jury’s verdict was made.
judgment n.o.v.	Judgment “notwithstanding the verdict” may be awarded after the jury returns a verdict that the judge believes no rational jury could have come to. Judgment n.o.v. reverses the verdict and awards judgment to the party against whom the jury’s verdict was made.
judicial review	The power the Supreme Court has to say what the US Constitution means. Because the Constitution speaks in broad terms, the interpretations of the Supreme Court as to the meaning of its provisions define what the Constitution means. The Constitution can only be changed by amendment or by further interpretation by the Supreme Court.
judicial review	The power the Supreme Court has to say what the US Constitution means. Because the Constitution speaks in broad terms, the interpretations of the Supreme Court as to the meaning of its provisions define what the Constitution means. The Constitution can only be changed by amendment or by further interpretation by the Supreme Court.
justifiable homicide	When the law permits one person to kill another.
justifiable homicide	When the law permits one person to kill another.
larceny	The wrongful taking and carrying away of the personal property of another with intent to steal the same.
larceny	The wrongful taking and carrying away of the personal property of another with intent to steal the same.
legal benefit	The receipt by one person of something legal he or she had no preexisting right to.
legal benefit	The receipt by one person of something legal he or she had no preexisting right to.
legal sufficiency	Something of value enough to constitute consideration.
legal sufficiency	Something of value enough to constitute consideration.
leveraged buyout (LBO)	The acquisition of another company using a significant amount of borrowed money to pay for the acquisition. Often, the assets of the company being acquired may be used as collateral for the loans.
leveraged buyout (LBO)	The acquisition of another company using a significant amount of borrowed money to pay for the acquisition. Often, the assets of the company being acquired may be used as collateral for the loans.
leveraged buyout (LBO)	The acquisition of another company using a significant amount of borrowed money to pay for the acquisition. Often, the assets of the company being acquired may be used as collateral for the loans.
leveraged buyout (LBO)	The acquisition of another company using a significant amount of borrowed money to pay for the acquisition. Often, the assets of the company being acquired may be used as collateral for the loans.
lien	An encumbrance upon property to secure payment.
lien	An encumbrance upon property to secure payment.
lien creditor	A creditor who is secured by a lien.
lien creditor	A creditor who is secured by a lien.
limited liability company	An unincorporated organization of one or more persons or entities established in accordance with applicable state laws and whose members may actively participate in the organization without being personally liable for the debts, obligations, or liabilities of the organization.
limited liability company	An unincorporated organization of one or more persons or entities established in accordance with applicable state laws and whose members may actively participate in the organization without being personally liable for the debts, obligations, or liabilities of the organization.
limited liability limited partnership	A limited partnership that has chosen to limit the liability of the general partnership under state law.
limited liability limited partnership	A limited partnership that has chosen to limit the liability of the general partnership under state law.
limited liability partnership	A partnership in which some or all partners (depending on the jurisdiction) have limited liability.
limited liability partnership	A partnership in which some or all partners (depending on the jurisdiction) have limited liability.
limited partners	A member of a limited partnership who is not involved in running the firm but rather stands as a passive investor.
limited partners	A member of a limited partnership who is not involved in running the firm but rather stands as a passive investor.
limited partnership	A partnership formed by two or more persons under state law and having one or more general partners and one or more limited partners.
limited partnership	A partnership formed by two or more persons under state law and having one or more general partners and one or more limited partners.
limited warranty	Under the Magnuson-Moss Act, a less-than-full warranty.
limited warranty	Under the Magnuson-Moss Act, a less-than-full warranty.
lingering authority	Authority that arises where actual authority has been terminated, but third parties are led by the principal’s negligence to believe it still exists.
lingering authority	Authority that arises where actual authority has been terminated, but third parties are led by the principal’s negligence to believe it still exists.
liquidated damages	Damages agreed to in the contract that are payable in case of breach.
liquidated damages	Damages agreed to in the contract that are payable in case of breach.
liquidated debt	A money obligation the value of which is known.
liquidated debt	A money obligation the value of which is known.
liquidation	The process of paying creditors and distributing the assets of a corporation.
liquidation	The process of paying creditors and distributing the assets of a corporation.
lockout	A management tactic designed to gain bargaining advantage for the company by refusing to allow union members to work (and thus depriving them of their pay).
lockout	A management tactic designed to gain bargaining advantage for the company by refusing to allow union members to work (and thus depriving them of their pay).
Lost volume	Damages for loss of profits on an item of inventory.
Lost volume	Damages for loss of profits on an item of inventory.
mailbox rule	Common-law rule that acceptance is effective when dropped in mail.
mailbox rule	Common-law rule that acceptance is effective when dropped in mail.
main purpose doctrine	A promise to pay the debt of another need not be in writing to be enforceable if the promisor was motivated by a desire for advantage or benefit.
main purpose doctrine	A promise to pay the debt of another need not be in writing to be enforceable if the promisor was motivated by a desire for advantage or benefit.
material information	Information that would be likely to affect a stock’s price once it became known to the public.
material information	Information that would be likely to affect a stock’s price once it became known to the public.
mechanic’s lien	A claim allowed to one who furnishes labor, services, or materials to improve property.
mechanic’s lien	A claim allowed to one who furnishes labor, services, or materials to improve property.
mediation	A process where disputing parties agree to bring their differences to an experienced mediator, knowledgeable about the type of dispute involved, and in which the mediator’s recommendations may be accepted or rejected by either or both parties.
mediation	A process where disputing parties agree to bring their differences to an experienced mediator, knowledgeable about the type of dispute involved, and in which the mediator’s recommendations may be accepted or rejected by either or both parties.
merger	Any type of corporate expansion by which one corporation acquires part or all of another corporation.
merger	Any type of corporate expansion by which one corporation acquires part or all of another corporation.
merger clause	A contract term stating that the written agreement contains—merges—the parties’ full understanding and intent.
merger clause	A contract term stating that the written agreement contains—merges—the parties’ full understanding and intent.
merit review laws	Laws that regulate the disclosure and the substantive merits and fairness of the securities offerings to investors.
merit review laws	Laws that regulate the disclosure and the substantive merits and fairness of the securities offerings to investors.
mirror image rule	Common-law rule that the acceptance must be the same as the offer.
mirror image rule	Common-law rule that the acceptance must be the same as the offer.
misdemeanors	Crimes that are less serious than a felony, usually involving punishment of six months in prison or less.
misdemeanors	Crimes that are less serious than a felony, usually involving punishment of six months in prison or less.
Misrepresentation	A false or misleading statement or impression given that induces a party to contract.
Misrepresentation	A false or misleading statement or impression given that induces a party to contract.
mitigation of damages	The plaintiff’s duty to take reasonable steps to minimize his or her damages or losses and to attempt to prevent further damage.
mitigation of damages	The plaintiff’s duty to take reasonable steps to minimize his or her damages or losses and to attempt to prevent further damage.
moral hazard	The lack of incentive to guard against a risk when a person is protected against it, as by being afforded limited liability.
moral hazard	The lack of incentive to guard against a risk when a person is protected against it, as by being afforded limited liability.
mortgagee	The party who holds a mortgage; the creditor (such as a bank).
mortgagee	The party who holds a mortgage; the creditor (such as a bank).
motions	Written requests made to a presiding judge. These include motions to dismiss, motions for summary judgment, motions to direct an opposing party to divulge more in discovery, motions for a directed verdict, motions for judgment n.o.v., and many others.
motions	Written requests made to a presiding judge. These include motions to dismiss, motions for summary judgment, motions to direct an opposing party to divulge more in discovery, motions for a directed verdict, motions for judgment n.o.v., and many others.
municipal corporation	A governmental entity; also called a public corporation.
municipal corporation	A governmental entity; also called a public corporation.
mutual mistake	Erroneous belief shared and relied on by both parties to a contract for which a court often grants relief.
mutual mistake	Erroneous belief shared and relied on by both parties to a contract for which a court often grants relief.
nation-states	The basic entities that comprise the international legal system. Countries, states, and nations are all roughly synonymous. State can also be used to designate the basic units of federally united states, such as in the United States of America, which is a nation-state.
nation-states	The basic entities that comprise the international legal system. Countries, states, and nations are all roughly synonymous. State can also be used to designate the basic units of federally united states, such as in the United States of America, which is a nation-state.
natural law	A jurisprudence that emphasizes a law that transcends positive laws (human laws) and points to a set of principles that are universal in application.
natural law	A jurisprudence that emphasizes a law that transcends positive laws (human laws) and points to a set of principles that are universal in application.
needs contract	An agreement to buy all of one’s requirements (of goods or services) from a single source.
needs contract	An agreement to buy all of one’s requirements (of goods or services) from a single source.
negligence	A breach of the duty of due care.
negligence	A breach of the duty of due care.
negligence per se	An act of the defendant that violates a statute regulation or ordinance can be used to establish a breach of the duty of due care.
negligence per se	An act of the defendant that violates a statute regulation or ordinance can be used to establish a breach of the duty of due care.
negligent misrepresentation	A false or misleading statement or impression made because of carelessness.
negligent misrepresentation	A false or misleading statement or impression made because of carelessness.
no-asset cases	A bankruptcy case with no nonexempt property.
no-asset cases	A bankruptcy case with no nonexempt property.
nominal damages	Damages in name only, as where actual damages are nonexistent or cannot be proved.
nominal damages	Damages in name only, as where actual damages are nonexistent or cannot be proved.
noncompete agreements	One party agrees not to pursue a similar profession or trade in competition against another party.
noncompete agreements	One party agrees not to pursue a similar profession or trade in competition against another party.
nonprofit corporation	A corporation in which no part of the income is distributable to its members, directors, or officers.
nonprofit corporation	A corporation in which no part of the income is distributable to its members, directors, or officers.
novation	A new contract substituting for an old one, or a new party to a contract replacing a former party.
novation	A new contract substituting for an old one, or a new party to a contract replacing a former party.
novation	A new contract substituting for an old one, or a new party to a contract replacing a former party.
novation	A new contract substituting for an old one, or a new party to a contract replacing a former party.
objective standard	Judging something as an outsider would understand it; not subjective.
objective standard	Judging something as an outsider would understand it; not subjective.
objectively impracticable	Impossible.
objectively impracticable	Impossible.
Obligor	One who owes an obligation.
Obligor	One who owes an obligation.
offer	The proposal upon which the contract is based.
offer	The proposal upon which the contract is based.
opposition proceeding	Those who feel that their own marks would be hurt by registration of a proposed mark may file an opposition proceeding in the US Patent and Trademark Office.
opposition proceeding	Those who feel that their own marks would be hurt by registration of a proposed mark may file an opposition proceeding in the US Patent and Trademark Office.
option contract	A promise to keep an offer open for some time; must be supported by consideration.
option contract	A promise to keep an offer open for some time; must be supported by consideration.
order of relief	The court’s order determining the debtor’s property to be under the control of the bankruptcy court.
order of relief	The court’s order determining the debtor’s property to be under the control of the bankruptcy court.
Par value	The face value of a stock.
Par value	The face value of a stock.
parol evidence rule	Under this rule, where there is a written contract, extrinsic (parol) evidence cannot usually change the express terms laid down in that document.
parol evidence rule	Under this rule, where there is a written contract, extrinsic (parol) evidence cannot usually change the express terms laid down in that document.
part performance doctrine	Equitable exception to Statute of Frauds dispensing with writing requirement when one party performed his or her part of the contract.
part performance doctrine	Equitable exception to Statute of Frauds dispensing with writing requirement when one party performed his or her part of the contract.
partnership	Two or more persons carrying on a business as co-owners for profit.
partnership	Two or more persons carrying on a business as co-owners for profit.
partnership by estoppel	Partnership arising when in fact none exists, where one allows himself or herself to be represented as a partner, thus incurring partnership liability.
partnership by estoppel	Partnership arising when in fact none exists, where one allows himself or herself to be represented as a partner, thus incurring partnership liability.
past consideration	A promise subsequent to a promisee’s act, not bargained for; it does not count as consideration.
past consideration	A promise subsequent to a promisee’s act, not bargained for; it does not count as consideration.
perfect tender	The precise performance of a contractual obligation.
perfect tender	The precise performance of a contractual obligation.
Perfection	The process by which a secured party announces to the world her secured interest in particular goods.
Perfection	The process by which a secured party announces to the world her secured interest in particular goods.
perils	Risks that are insured against.
perils	Risks that are insured against.
Perjury	The crime of giving a false oath, either orally or in writing, in a judicial or other official proceeding.
Perjury	The crime of giving a false oath, either orally or in writing, in a judicial or other official proceeding.
personal jurisdiction	Each court must have subject matter jurisdiction and personal jurisdiction over at least one named defendant. If the defendant is a nonresident where the lawsuit is filed, there may be constitutional issues of personal jurisdiction arising from the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. One state should not claim personal jurisdiction over a nonresident unless various tests are met, such as minimum contacts and the “purposeful availment” test.
personal jurisdiction	Each court must have subject matter jurisdiction and personal jurisdiction over at least one named defendant. If the defendant is a nonresident where the lawsuit is filed, there may be constitutional issues of personal jurisdiction arising from the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. One state should not claim personal jurisdiction over a nonresident unless various tests are met, such as minimum contacts and the “purposeful availment” test.
personal liability	A failure to follow corporate formalities—for example, inadequate capitalization or commingling of assets—can subject stockholders to personal liability.
personal liability	A failure to follow corporate formalities—for example, inadequate capitalization or commingling of assets—can subject stockholders to personal liability.
personal property	Any property that is not real property.
personal property	Any property that is not real property.
personal right	The right or duty of a particular person to perform or receive contract duties or benefits; cannot be assigned.
personal right	The right or duty of a particular person to perform or receive contract duties or benefits; cannot be assigned.
physical duress	The threat of physical harm that wrongfully induces a party to contract.
physical duress	The threat of physical harm that wrongfully induces a party to contract.
piercing the corporate veil	The protection of the corporation (the veil) is set aside for litigation purposes, and liability can be imposed on individual shareholders or entities that exist behind the corporation.
piercing the corporate veil	The protection of the corporation (the veil) is set aside for litigation purposes, and liability can be imposed on individual shareholders or entities that exist behind the corporation.
plea bargaining	A defendant’s plea of guilty, given in exchange for a recommendation from the prosecutor to the judge for a limited or lesser sentence for the defendant.
plea bargaining	A defendant’s plea of guilty, given in exchange for a recommendation from the prosecutor to the judge for a limited or lesser sentence for the defendant.
pledge	The delivery of goods to a creditor as security for the debt.
pledge	The delivery of goods to a creditor as security for the debt.
Plowback	Reinvesting corporate earnings in the corporation as a method of raising funds.
Plowback	Reinvesting corporate earnings in the corporation as a method of raising funds.
possessory lien	Lien imposed by one who has possession of goods to secure payment for improvements to them.
possessory lien	Lien imposed by one who has possession of goods to secure payment for improvements to them.
possibility test	Exception to Statute of Frauds’ one-year rule: if at its making, a contract could have been performed in one year, no writing is required.
possibility test	Exception to Statute of Frauds’ one-year rule: if at its making, a contract could have been performed in one year, no writing is required.
postnuptial (after marriage) agreements	An agreement after marriage between spouses concerning division or ownership of their property.
postnuptial (after marriage) agreements	An agreement after marriage between spouses concerning division or ownership of their property.
power of avoidance	A party’s right to terminate performance of a contract—to avoid it (e.g., a minor has power of avoidance).
power of avoidance	A party’s right to terminate performance of a contract—to avoid it (e.g., a minor has power of avoidance).
power of sale	A term allowing the mortgagee to sell real estate upon mortgagor’s default without going to court.
power of sale	A term allowing the mortgagee to sell real estate upon mortgagor’s default without going to court.
preemption	Based on the supremacy clause, the preemption doctrine holds that state and federal laws that conflict must yield to the superior law, which is federal law.
preemption	Based on the supremacy clause, the preemption doctrine holds that state and federal laws that conflict must yield to the superior law, which is federal law.
Preemption	The theory that a federal law supersedes any inconsistent state law or regulation.
Preemption	The theory that a federal law supersedes any inconsistent state law or regulation.
preemptive rights	The rights of shareholders to protect dilution of their percentage of share ownership.
preemptive rights	The rights of shareholders to protect dilution of their percentage of share ownership.
preferred stock	A variety of stock that differs from common stock in provisions for dividends and/or preference upon liquidation.
preferred stock	A variety of stock that differs from common stock in provisions for dividends and/or preference upon liquidation.
preincorporation stock subscriptions	Offers by would-be investors to purchase stock in a corporation that is not as yet formed.
preincorporation stock subscriptions	Offers by would-be investors to purchase stock in a corporation that is not as yet formed.
prenuptial (premarital) contract	A premartial contract by which spouses agree on property division.
prenuptial (premarital) contract	A premartial contract by which spouses agree on property division.
principal debtor	The person whose debt is guaranteed by a surety.
principal debtor	The person whose debt is guaranteed by a surety.
private property	All property, real or personal, that is not publicly owned or part of “the commons.”
private property	All property, real or personal, that is not publicly owned or part of “the commons.”
privity	The relationship of the immediate parties to a contract, a “private” relationship, as between retailer and customer.
privity	The relationship of the immediate parties to a contract, a “private” relationship, as between retailer and customer.
privity	The relationship between two contracting parties.
privity	The relationship between two contracting parties.
professional corporation	A corporation of lawyers, doctor, accountants, or other professionals who enjoy the same benefits in corporate form as do other corporations.
professional corporation	A corporation of lawyers, doctor, accountants, or other professionals who enjoy the same benefits in corporate form as do other corporations.
promissory estoppel	To be prohibited from denying a promise when another subsequently has relied on it.
promissory estoppel	To be prohibited from denying a promise when another subsequently has relied on it.
promissory estoppel	To be prohibited from denying a promise when another subsequently has relied on it.
promissory estoppel	To be prohibited from denying a promise when another subsequently has relied on it.
promoters	An individual who takes the initial steps needed to form a corporation.
promoters	An individual who takes the initial steps needed to form a corporation.
proof of claim	The form used to file a claim by a creditor.
proof of claim	The form used to file a claim by a creditor.
prospectus	A document that provides details about an investment offering for sale to the public—the facts an investor needs to make an informed decision.
prospectus	A document that provides details about an investment offering for sale to the public—the facts an investor needs to make an informed decision.
proximate cause	Sometimes known as legal cause, proximate cause must be shown as well as actual cause, so that an act of the defendant will not result in liability if the consequences of the negligent act are too remote or unforeseeable.
proximate cause	Sometimes known as legal cause, proximate cause must be shown as well as actual cause, so that an act of the defendant will not result in liability if the consequences of the negligent act are too remote or unforeseeable.
proxy	A method whereby a shareholder elects a representative, commonly another individual or a written document, through which the shareholder casts his vote at the annual meeting.
proxy	A method whereby a shareholder elects a representative, commonly another individual or a written document, through which the shareholder casts his vote at the annual meeting.
proxy solicitation	An attempt by a group or delegation to obtain the authorization from other individuals to vote on their behalf.
proxy solicitation	An attempt by a group or delegation to obtain the authorization from other individuals to vote on their behalf.
Public Company Accounting Oversight Board	A body created by Sarbanes-Oxley that oversees, inspects, and regulates accounting firms in their capacity as auditors of public companies.
Public Company Accounting Oversight Board	A body created by Sarbanes-Oxley that oversees, inspects, and regulates accounting firms in their capacity as auditors of public companies.
public domain	Once a copyright has expired, the material enters the public domain, meaning that no one can claim exclusive rights in the material.
public domain	Once a copyright has expired, the material enters the public domain, meaning that no one can claim exclusive rights in the material.
public figures	Based on the First Amendment of the US Constitution, a public figure cannot recover in a defamation case unless the plaintiff’s defamation was done with actual malice.
public figures	Based on the First Amendment of the US Constitution, a public figure cannot recover in a defamation case unless the plaintiff’s defamation was done with actual malice.
punitive damages	Punitive damages are awarded in cases where the conduct of the defendant is deemed to be so outrageous that justice is only served by adding a penalty over and above compensatory damages.
punitive damages	Punitive damages are awarded in cases where the conduct of the defendant is deemed to be so outrageous that justice is only served by adding a penalty over and above compensatory damages.
Punitive damages	Damages to punish the breaching party.
Punitive damages	Damages to punish the breaching party.
purchase of assets	One corporation purchases the assets of another corporation in order to expand.
purchase of assets	One corporation purchases the assets of another corporation in order to expand.
Purchase-money security interest	The security interest held by the seller of collateral to secure payment of all or part of the price.
Purchase-money security interest	The security interest held by the seller of collateral to secure payment of all or part of the price.
quasi-contract (implied in law)	A contract imposed on a party when there was none, to avoid unjust enrichment.
quasi-contract (implied in law)	A contract imposed on a party when there was none, to avoid unjust enrichment.
reaffirmation	To confirm again the validity of a promise that was discharged, as in bankruptcy.
reaffirmation	To confirm again the validity of a promise that was discharged, as in bankruptcy.
reaffirmation	To confirm again the vality of a promise that was discharged, as in bankruptcy.
reaffirmation	To confirm again the vality of a promise that was discharged, as in bankruptcy.
receivership	A court action placing the debtor’s property under control of a custodian so that it can be preserved or distributed for the benefit of all creditors.
receivership	A court action placing the debtor’s property under control of a custodian so that it can be preserved or distributed for the benefit of all creditors.
receiving stolen property	Depending on the value of the property, if you receive property from another person, knowing that it has been stolen, you have committed either a misdemeanor or a felony.
receiving stolen property	Depending on the value of the property, if you receive property from another person, knowing that it has been stolen, you have committed either a misdemeanor or a felony.
recording	The official filing of a legal document (a mortgage or a deed) so as to inform the world of it.
recording	The official filing of a legal document (a mortgage or a deed) so as to inform the world of it.
redlining	The alleged practice by lenders not to lend within certain geographic areas; considered discrimination.
redlining	The alleged practice by lenders not to lend within certain geographic areas; considered discrimination.
reformation	The correction of a contract containing errors.
reformation	The correction of a contract containing errors.
regular voting	The principle of one share, one vote. Also called statutory voting.
regular voting	The principle of one share, one vote. Also called statutory voting.
regulatory license	A license to practice a trade or profession that requires no competency test to obtain but only a registration.
regulatory license	A license to practice a trade or profession that requires no competency test to obtain but only a registration.
reimbursement	The right of a surety to be repaid by the principal debtor.
reimbursement	The right of a surety to be repaid by the principal debtor.
Rejection	A manifestation of refusal to agree to the terms of an offer.
Rejection	A manifestation of refusal to agree to the terms of an offer.
release	A contractual discharge of obligation by one side to another.
release	A contractual discharge of obligation by one side to another.
removal	The right of a defendant to remove a case from state to federal court.
removal	The right of a defendant to remove a case from state to federal court.
renunciation	A formal rejection of something, as a contract.
renunciation	A formal rejection of something, as a contract.
renunciation of agency	The agent’s unilateral termination of the agency relationship.
renunciation of agency	The agent’s unilateral termination of the agency relationship.
representation	Statements made by the insured in the application process.
representation	Statements made by the insured in the application process.
res ipsa loquitur	Literally, “the thing speaks for itself.” In tort cases, res ipsa loquitur creates a presumption that the defendant was negligent because he or she was in exclusive control of the situation and that the plaintiff would not have suffered injury but for someone’s negligence. Res ipsa loquitur shifts the burden to the defendant to prove that he or she was not negligent.
res ipsa loquitur	Literally, “the thing speaks for itself.” In tort cases, res ipsa loquitur creates a presumption that the defendant was negligent because he or she was in exclusive control of the situation and that the plaintiff would not have suffered injury but for someone’s negligence. Res ipsa loquitur shifts the burden to the defendant to prove that he or she was not negligent.
res judicata	“The matter has been adjudicated.” The same case or controversy cannot be heard and concluded in one court and relitigated in another. The same parties may have different issues and disputes, but a final judgment in a court that has jurisdiction over the case or controversy forever settles the matter.
res judicata	“The matter has been adjudicated.” The same case or controversy cannot be heard and concluded in one court and relitigated in another. The same parties may have different issues and disputes, but a final judgment in a court that has jurisdiction over the case or controversy forever settles the matter.
reservation of rights	A statement that one is intentionally retaining all or some legal rights, so as to warn others of those rights.
reservation of rights	A statement that one is intentionally retaining all or some legal rights, so as to warn others of those rights.
Restatement of the Law of Contracts	An organized codification of the common law of contracts.
Restatement of the Law of Contracts	An organized codification of the common law of contracts.
restitution	The return or restoration of some specific thing to its rightful owner or status.
restitution	The return or restoration of some specific thing to its rightful owner or status.
restitution	Restoration; returning goods or money to put the nonbreaching party in the condition as if the contract had not been made.
restitution	Restoration; returning goods or money to put the nonbreaching party in the condition as if the contract had not been made.
restitution interest	The nonbreaching party’s interest in being returned to the position it would have been in had the promises never been made. Where this is not possible, then restitution disgorges any unjust enrichment.
restitution interest	The nonbreaching party’s interest in being returned to the position it would have been in had the promises never been made. Where this is not possible, then restitution disgorges any unjust enrichment.
revocation	The withdrawal of an offer by the offeror.
revocation	The withdrawal of an offer by the offeror.
right of redemption	After foreclosure, for a limited period, the debtor’s right to reclaim the property sold, upon paying all costs and fees.
right of redemption	After foreclosure, for a limited period, the debtor’s right to reclaim the property sold, upon paying all costs and fees.
robbery	Larceny from a person by means of violence or intimidation.
robbery	Larceny from a person by means of violence or intimidation.
Rule 10b-5	A rule by the SEC that applies to any person who purchases or sells any security and that prohibits fraud related to securities trading.
Rule 10b-5	A rule by the SEC that applies to any person who purchases or sells any security and that prohibits fraud related to securities trading.
Rule 10b5-1	A provision that defines when a purchase or sale constitutes trading “on the basis of” material nonpublic information as any time a person trades while aware of material nonpublic information.
Rule 10b5-1	A provision that defines when a purchase or sale constitutes trading “on the basis of” material nonpublic information as any time a person trades while aware of material nonpublic information.
Rule 10b5-2	A provision that includes a nonexclusive definition of circumstances and that establishes a duty of trust or confidence for purposes of the misappropriation theory of insider trading.
Rule 10b5-2	A provision that includes a nonexclusive definition of circumstances and that establishes a duty of trust or confidence for purposes of the misappropriation theory of insider trading.
S corporation	A corporation whose owners elect to have it treated as a partnership for tax purposes.
S corporation	A corporation whose owners elect to have it treated as a partnership for tax purposes.
scienter	A legal term that refers to having intent or knowledge of wrongdoing.
scienter	A legal term that refers to having intent or knowledge of wrongdoing.
secondary actors	A ruling by the Supreme Court stating that “aiders and abettors” of fraud cannot be held secondarily liable under 10(b) for a private cause of action.
secondary actors	A ruling by the Supreme Court stating that “aiders and abettors” of fraud cannot be held secondarily liable under 10(b) for a private cause of action.
secondary boycotts	Union picketing directed at one business, designed to induce that business to stop doing business with the union’s employer.
secondary boycotts	Union picketing directed at one business, designed to induce that business to stop doing business with the union’s employer.
secondary market	The market in which securities are bought and sold subsequent to original issuance and are typically held by one investor selling them to another investor.
secondary market	The market in which securities are bought and sold subsequent to original issuance and are typically held by one investor selling them to another investor.
secondary meaning	A descriptive or generic word or phrase that would otherwise not qualify for trademark protection may be eligible once it acquires secondary meaning—that is, that the origin of the goods or services becomes identified with a particular source or provider and the mark makes that connection in the public’s mind.
secondary meaning	A descriptive or generic word or phrase that would otherwise not qualify for trademark protection may be eligible once it acquires secondary meaning—that is, that the origin of the goods or services becomes identified with a particular source or provider and the mark makes that connection in the public’s mind.
Section 16(b)	16(b) A section of the 1934 Securities Exchange Act that allows shareholders to sue corporate officers, directors, or owners of more than 10% of the company’s shares for any profits made by insider trading. 16(b) is not enforced by the SEC,but by private parties, and covers profits made within a “short swing” (six month) period.
Section 16(b)	16(b) A section of the 1934 Securities Exchange Act that allows shareholders to sue corporate officers, directors, or owners of more than 10% of the company’s shares for any profits made by insider trading. 16(b) is not enforced by the SEC,but by private parties, and covers profits made within a “short swing” (six month) period.
Secured party	The creditor who has a security interest in a debtor’s collateral.
Secured party	The creditor who has a security interest in a debtor’s collateral.
Securities Act of 1933	The first law enacted by Congress to regulate the securities market. This act regulates the public offering of new securities and provides for securities registration requirements, and prevention of fraudulent conduct.
Securities Act of 1933	The first law enacted by Congress to regulate the securities market. This act regulates the public offering of new securities and provides for securities registration requirements, and prevention of fraudulent conduct.
Securities and Exchange Commission	An independent federal regulatory agency whose primary task is to investigate complaints or other possible violations of the law in securities transactions and to bring enforcement proceedings when it believes that violations have occurred.
Securities and Exchange Commission	An independent federal regulatory agency whose primary task is to investigate complaints or other possible violations of the law in securities transactions and to bring enforcement proceedings when it believes that violations have occurred.
Securities Exchange Act of 1934	A law that was enacted to provide governance of securities transactions on the secondary market and to regulate the exchanges and broker-dealers in order to protect the investing public. This act also established the SEC.
Securities Exchange Act of 1934	A law that was enacted to provide governance of securities transactions on the secondary market and to regulate the exchanges and broker-dealers in order to protect the investing public. This act also established the SEC.
security	Any note, stock, treasury stock, bond, debenture, evidence of indebtedness, certificate of interest or participation in any profit-sharing agreement, collateral-trust certificate, or subscription, transferable share, investment contract, voting-trust certificate, certificate of deposit for a security, fractional undivided interest in oil, gas, or other mineral rights, or, in general, any interest or instrument commonly known as a security.
security	Any note, stock, treasury stock, bond, debenture, evidence of indebtedness, certificate of interest or participation in any profit-sharing agreement, collateral-trust certificate, or subscription, transferable share, investment contract, voting-trust certificate, certificate of deposit for a security, fractional undivided interest in oil, gas, or other mineral rights, or, in general, any interest or instrument commonly known as a security.
Security agreement	Agreement that grants a security interest.
Security agreement	Agreement that grants a security interest.
security interest	Right in personal property to secure payment or performance of an obligation.
security interest	Right in personal property to secure payment or performance of an obligation.
separation of powers	In the original design of the Constitution, the executive, legislative, and judicial branches were all given powers that could modify or limit the powers of the other branches of government. For example, the president wields a veto power over congressional legislation.
separation of powers	In the original design of the Constitution, the executive, legislative, and judicial branches were all given powers that could modify or limit the powers of the other branches of government. For example, the president wields a veto power over congressional legislation.
servant	An employee.
servant	An employee.
sexual harassment	Demands for sexual favors in return for job promotions or other benefits, or language or conduct so sexually offensive that it creates a hostile work environment, disadvantaging the employee on the basis of sex.
sexual harassment	Demands for sexual favors in return for job promotions or other benefits, or language or conduct so sexually offensive that it creates a hostile work environment, disadvantaging the employee on the basis of sex.
shareholder quorum	Minimum number of shareholders needed to have a valid vote. Also, when a simple majority of the shares entitled to vote is sufficient to effectuate a meeting.
shareholder quorum	Minimum number of shareholders needed to have a valid vote. Also, when a simple majority of the shares entitled to vote is sufficient to effectuate a meeting.
shares	An ownership interest in a corporation (synonymous with stock).
shares	An ownership interest in a corporation (synonymous with stock).
shop rights doctrine	The rights of a company to exploit inventions made by employees on company time and resources.
shop rights doctrine	The rights of a company to exploit inventions made by employees on company time and resources.
short-form merger	If the one company acquires 90 percent or more of the stock of another company, it can initiate a merger without the consent of the shareholders.
short-form merger	If the one company acquires 90 percent or more of the stock of another company, it can initiate a merger without the consent of the shareholders.
short-swing profits	Any profits made from the purchase and sale of company stock if both transactions occur within a six-month period; insiders are required to return any profits made from the purchase and sale of company stock if both transactions occur within a six-month period.
short-swing profits	Any profits made from the purchase and sale of company stock if both transactions occur within a six-month period; insiders are required to return any profits made from the purchase and sale of company stock if both transactions occur within a six-month period.
signature loan	A loan for which no collateral is pledged.
signature loan	A loan for which no collateral is pledged.
social contract	The idea that people in a civil society have voluntarily given up some of their freedoms to have ordered liberty with the assistance of a government that will support that liberty. Hobbes and Locke are generally regarded as the preeminent social contract theorists.
social contract	The idea that people in a civil society have voluntarily given up some of their freedoms to have ordered liberty with the assistance of a government that will support that liberty. Hobbes and Locke are generally regarded as the preeminent social contract theorists.
sovereign	The authority within any nation-state. Sovereignty is what sovereigns exercise. This usually means the power to make and enforce laws within the nation-state.
sovereign	The authority within any nation-state. Sovereignty is what sovereigns exercise. This usually means the power to make and enforce laws within the nation-state.
special agent	An agent hired by contract to carry out specifically stated activities.
special agent	An agent hired by contract to carry out specifically stated activities.
specification	A description of the invention that gives enough detail so that one skilled in the art will be able to make and use the invention.
specification	A description of the invention that gives enough detail so that one skilled in the art will be able to make and use the invention.
stakeholder theory	The view that all stakeholders to a corporate decision deserve some kind of moral consideration and that corporations that keep all stakeholders in mind will, over the long term, deliver superior results to shareholders.
stakeholder theory	The view that all stakeholders to a corporate decision deserve some kind of moral consideration and that corporations that keep all stakeholders in mind will, over the long term, deliver superior results to shareholders.
stand in the shoes of	An assignee takes no greater rights than his assignor had.
stand in the shoes of	An assignee takes no greater rights than his assignor had.
stare decisis	Latin, for “let the decision stand.” By keeping within the rule of a prior judicial decision, a court follows “precedent” by letting the prior decision govern the result in the case at hand.
stare decisis	Latin, for “let the decision stand.” By keeping within the rule of a prior judicial decision, a court follows “precedent” by letting the prior decision govern the result in the case at hand.
statement of denial	A public filing that a partner has no authority to perform some act(s) on the firm’s behalf or that a person is not a partner.
statement of denial	A public filing that a partner has no authority to perform some act(s) on the firm’s behalf or that a person is not a partner.
statement of dissociation	A public filing that a partner is withdrawing from the firm.
statement of dissociation	A public filing that a partner is withdrawing from the firm.
statement of partnership authority	A public filing setting out or limiting partners’ authority.
statement of partnership authority	A public filing setting out or limiting partners’ authority.
Statute of Frauds	A rule requiring that certain contracts be evidenced by a writing, signed by the party to be bound, to be enforceable.
Statute of Frauds	A rule requiring that certain contracts be evidenced by a writing, signed by the party to be bound, to be enforceable.
statute of limitations	Each state and the federal government has legislated certain time periods beyond which plaintiffs are not allowed to file civil lawsuits. (There are some statutes of limitations for some kinds of criminal offenses, as well.)
statute of limitations	Each state and the federal government has legislated certain time periods beyond which plaintiffs are not allowed to file civil lawsuits. (There are some statutes of limitations for some kinds of criminal offenses, as well.)
statute of limitations	The law stipulating how long after a cause of action arises that a person has to sue on it.
statute of limitations	The law stipulating how long after a cause of action arises that a person has to sue on it.
statute of limitations	The law stating how long people have to bring a lawsuit after the cause of action arises.
statute of limitations	The law stating how long people have to bring a lawsuit after the cause of action arises.
statute of repose	A statute limiting the time that a product manufacturer can be liable for its defects.
statute of repose	A statute limiting the time that a product manufacturer can be liable for its defects.
statutes	Legislative directives, having the form of general rules that are to be followed in the nation-state or its subdivisions. Statutes are controlling over judicial decisions or common law, but are inferior to (and controlled by) constitutional law.
statutes	Legislative directives, having the form of general rules that are to be followed in the nation-state or its subdivisions. Statutes are controlling over judicial decisions or common law, but are inferior to (and controlled by) constitutional law.
stay	Upon filing the bankruptcy, an automatic injunction that halts actions by creditors to collect debts.
stay	Upon filing the bankruptcy, an automatic injunction that halts actions by creditors to collect debts.
stock split	Increasing the number of a firm’s outstanding shares by issuing more shares to current shareholders, adjusting the price to keep the firm’s market capitalization the same.
stock split	Increasing the number of a firm’s outstanding shares by issuing more shares to current shareholders, adjusting the price to keep the firm’s market capitalization the same.
strict foreclosure	The creditor takes the collateral, discharges the debtor, and has no right to seek any deficiency.
strict foreclosure	The creditor takes the collateral, discharges the debtor, and has no right to seek any deficiency.
strict foreclosure	The creditor takes the collateral, discharges the debtor, and has no right to seek any deficiency.
strict foreclosure	The creditor takes the collateral, discharges the debtor, and has no right to seek any deficiency.
strict liability	Liability without fault. This may arise when the defendant engages in ultrahazardous activities or where defective product creates an unreasonable risk of injury to consumers or others.
strict liability	Liability without fault. This may arise when the defendant engages in ultrahazardous activities or where defective product creates an unreasonable risk of injury to consumers or others.
strict products liability	Liability imposed on a merchant-seller of defective goods without fault.
strict products liability	Liability imposed on a merchant-seller of defective goods without fault.
subagents	The agent of an agent.
subagents	The agent of an agent.
subject matter jurisdiction	Legal authority to hear and decide a case or controversy.
subject matter jurisdiction	Legal authority to hear and decide a case or controversy.
subrogation	Substitution of one person for another who has a legal claim or right.
subrogation	Substitution of one person for another who has a legal claim or right.
Subrogation	Substitution of one person for another who has a legal claim or right.
Subrogation	Substitution of one person for another who has a legal claim or right.
substantial performance	At common law, the idea that a promisee should not be denied all payment under a contract when his or her performance was imperfect if significant benefit has been conferred on the promisor, who must pay for the value received.
substantial performance	At common law, the idea that a promisee should not be denied all payment under a contract when his or her performance was imperfect if significant benefit has been conferred on the promisor, who must pay for the value received.
substantive due process	A doctrine of the Supreme Court that negated numerous laws in the first third of the 20th century. Its use in the past 80 years is greatly diminished, but it survives in terms of protecting substantive liberties not otherwise enumerated in the Constitution.
substantive due process	A doctrine of the Supreme Court that negated numerous laws in the first third of the 20th century. Its use in the past 80 years is greatly diminished, but it survives in terms of protecting substantive liberties not otherwise enumerated in the Constitution.
substituted agreement	A new agreement between original parties who have given up rights under the old agreement.
substituted agreement	A new agreement between original parties who have given up rights under the old agreement.
successor liability	The liability of an acquiring company for the debts and/or lawsuits of the corporation whose assets it purchased.
successor liability	The liability of an acquiring company for the debts and/or lawsuits of the corporation whose assets it purchased.
summary judgment	As in a directed verdict, when a judge grants summary judgment, she has concluded that there are no matters of law or fact on which reasonable people would disagree. Summary judgment is a final order, and it is appealable.
summary judgment	As in a directed verdict, when a judge grants summary judgment, she has concluded that there are no matters of law or fact on which reasonable people would disagree. Summary judgment is a final order, and it is appealable.
surplus	The excess of net assets of a corporation over its stated capital.
surplus	The excess of net assets of a corporation over its stated capital.
takeover	An appeal directly to the shareholders of a target corporation by offering money or other securities in exchange for the shareholders’ shares.
takeover	An appeal directly to the shareholders of a target corporation by offering money or other securities in exchange for the shareholders’ shares.
tax lien	A lien imposed by the government to secure payment of taxes owing.
tax lien	A lien imposed by the government to secure payment of taxes owing.
tenant’s fixtures	Fixtures added to rental property that become property of the owner.
tenant’s fixtures	Fixtures added to rental property that become property of the owner.
tenants in partnership	Under UPA, how partnership property is held by the partners: jointly.
tenants in partnership	Under UPA, how partnership property is held by the partners: jointly.
tender offer	An invitation to the shareholders of a target corporation to tender their shares for a stipulated price. Often used when a target has many shareholders.
tender offer	An invitation to the shareholders of a target corporation to tender their shares for a stipulated price. Often used when a target has many shareholders.
term partnership	A partnership with a time period for its duration expressed.
term partnership	A partnership with a time period for its duration expressed.
termination	The lawful right to end the contract other than for breach.
termination	The lawful right to end the contract other than for breach.
termination statement	The notice from a creditor that the debtor’s obligations are discharged.
termination statement	The notice from a creditor that the debtor’s obligations are discharged.
time is of the essence	A clause asserting that any tardy performance is a material breach, discharging the nonbreaching party.
time is of the essence	A clause asserting that any tardy performance is a material breach, discharging the nonbreaching party.
tippees	Someone who receives and acts on insider information.
tippees	Someone who receives and acts on insider information.
tortfeasor	A person or legal entity that commits a tort.
tortfeasor	A person or legal entity that commits a tort.
trade secret	A process, chemical formula, list, plan, or mechanism known only to an employer and those employees who need to know in order to use it in the business.
trade secret	A process, chemical formula, list, plan, or mechanism known only to an employer and those employees who need to know in order to use it in the business.
trademark	Defined by the federal Lanham Act of 1946 as “any word, name, symbol, or device or any combination thereof adopted and used by a manufacturer or merchant to identify his goods and distinguish them from goods manufactured or sold by others.”
trademark	Defined by the federal Lanham Act of 1946 as “any word, name, symbol, or device or any combination thereof adopted and used by a manufacturer or merchant to identify his goods and distinguish them from goods manufactured or sold by others.”
transacting business	A minimum level of corporate activities required for a corporation to need a certificate of authority.
transacting business	A minimum level of corporate activities required for a corporation to need a certificate of authority.
Transfer of interest	Transferring an ownership interest through the sale of stock from one person to the next.
Transfer of interest	Transferring an ownership interest through the sale of stock from one person to the next.
Treasury shares	Stock that was issued and then later reacquired by a company (a buyback) or that was never sold to the public in the first place and simply retained by the company.
Treasury shares	Stock that was issued and then later reacquired by a company (a buyback) or that was never sold to the public in the first place and simply retained by the company.
treaties	Formal agreements concluded between nation-states.
treaties	Formal agreements concluded between nation-states.
Truth in Lending Act	A federal act ensuring that every individual who has need for consumer credit is given full disclosure of the terms and cost of the credit.
Truth in Lending Act	A federal act ensuring that every individual who has need for consumer credit is given full disclosure of the terms and cost of the credit.
ultra vires doctrine	A doctrine holding that certain legal consequences attach to an attempt by a corporation to carry out acts that are outside its lawful powers.
ultra vires doctrine	A doctrine holding that certain legal consequences attach to an attempt by a corporation to carry out acts that are outside its lawful powers.
unconscionable contracts	A contract so unfair as to be unenforceable.
unconscionable contracts	A contract so unfair as to be unenforceable.
undue influence	Improper use of power or trust in a way that deprives a person of free will and substitutes another’s objective.
undue influence	Improper use of power or trust in a way that deprives a person of free will and substitutes another’s objective.
unenforceable contract	A contract for which the nonbreaching party has no remedy for its breach.
unenforceable contract	A contract for which the nonbreaching party has no remedy for its breach.
unfair labor practices	Acts that violate the National Labor Relations Act, such as failing to bargain in good faith. Unfair labor practices can be committed by employers and by unions.
unfair labor practices	Acts that violate the National Labor Relations Act, such as failing to bargain in good faith. Unfair labor practices can be committed by employers and by unions.
Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA)	A US law generally making electronic contracting valid and the contracts enforceable.
Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA)	A US law generally making electronic contracting valid and the contracts enforceable.
Unilateral contracts	A contract that is accepted by performance of the requested action, not by a promise.
Unilateral contracts	A contract that is accepted by performance of the requested action, not by a promise.
unilateral mistake	A mistake made by one party to a contract; relief is not usually granted.
unilateral mistake	A mistake made by one party to a contract; relief is not usually granted.
Union shop	This exists where the bargaining unit and the employer have agreed that the employer can hire either labor union members or nonmembers but that all nonunion employees must become union members within a specified period of time.
Union shop	This exists where the bargaining unit and the employer have agreed that the employer can hire either labor union members or nonmembers but that all nonunion employees must become union members within a specified period of time.
usury	Charging interest in excess of the legal limit.
usury	Charging interest in excess of the legal limit.
Usury	Charging interest in excess of the legal limit.
Usury	Charging interest in excess of the legal limit.
Utilitarianism	The theory that the “right” moral act is the one that produces the greatest good for society.
Utilitarianism	The theory that the “right” moral act is the one that produces the greatest good for society.
venture capital	Financial capital provided to early-stage, high-potential, high-risk start-up companies by investors who often expect a return on the investment by an eventual sale of the company or by taking the firm public.
venture capital	Financial capital provided to early-stage, high-potential, high-risk start-up companies by investors who often expect a return on the investment by an eventual sale of the company or by taking the firm public.
vertical privity	Privity between parties (manufacturer and retailer) occupying adjoining levels in product distribution systems.
vertical privity	Privity between parties (manufacturer and retailer) occupying adjoining levels in product distribution systems.
vesting of rights	The time at which the benefit of a contract is fixed in the beneficiary.
vesting of rights	The time at which the benefit of a contract is fixed in the beneficiary.
vicarious liability	Liability incurred indirectly through the actions of another.
vicarious liability	Liability incurred indirectly through the actions of another.
Virtue theory	Aristotle’s perspective on finding happiness through the application of reason in human affairs advises continual practice to develop habits of virtuous moral character. In a modern setting, deliberating on core values and their application to individual and corporate ethical dilemmas and adhering to the recommendations of core values analysis would provide similar practice.
Virtue theory	Aristotle’s perspective on finding happiness through the application of reason in human affairs advises continual practice to develop habits of virtuous moral character. In a modern setting, deliberating on core values and their application to individual and corporate ethical dilemmas and adhering to the recommendations of core values analysis would provide similar practice.
void contract	An agreement that never was a contract.
void contract	An agreement that never was a contract.
voidable contract	A contract that is capable of being annulled.
voidable contract	A contract that is capable of being annulled.
voidable preferences	Transfer of assets by a debtor filing a voluntary bankruptcy petition in favor of one creditor at the expense of other secured creditors.
voidable preferences	Transfer of assets by a debtor filing a voluntary bankruptcy petition in favor of one creditor at the expense of other secured creditors.
voluntary dissolution	Dissolution of a corporation by unanimous written consent of its shareholders.
voluntary dissolution	Dissolution of a corporation by unanimous written consent of its shareholders.
voting agreement	An agreement made in advance among shareholders to vote in a particular manner. Also called shareholder agreement.
voting agreement	An agreement made in advance among shareholders to vote in a particular manner. Also called shareholder agreement.
voting trust	A trust created among shareholders where the shareholders elect a trust agreement, the provisions of which are effectuated by a voting trustee.
voting trust	A trust created among shareholders where the shareholders elect a trust agreement, the provisions of which are effectuated by a voting trustee.
wage assignment	A clause in a loan contract that allows the lender to obtain the borrower’s wages in the case of a default.
wage assignment	A clause in a loan contract that allows the lender to obtain the borrower’s wages in the case of a default.
waiver	The surrender of a legal right.
waiver	The surrender of a legal right.
waiver of defenses	Surrender by a party of legal rights otherwise available to him or her.
waiver of defenses	Surrender by a party of legal rights otherwise available to him or her.
watered stock	When consideration is inflated such that the property given for consideration in exchange for shares is in fact less than par value.
watered stock	When consideration is inflated such that the property given for consideration in exchange for shares is in fact less than par value.
White-collar crime	Any number of crimes, usually involving a business context; any illegal act committed by nonviolent means to obtain a personal or business advantage.
White-collar crime	Any number of crimes, usually involving a business context; any illegal act committed by nonviolent means to obtain a personal or business advantage.
whole-life insurance	Provides savings as well as insurance and can let the insured collect before death.
whole-life insurance	Provides savings as well as insurance and can let the insured collect before death.
Winding up	Finishing the business at hand, settling accounts, and terminating a firm.
Winding up	Finishing the business at hand, settling accounts, and terminating a firm.
workers’ compensation	Laws imposing strict employer liability for injuries sustained by employees in the scope of employment.
workers’ compensation	Laws imposing strict employer liability for injuries sustained by employees in the scope of employment.
writ of certiorari	The writ issued by a higher court that grants review of the decision of a lower court. In the United States, the Supreme Court’s writ of certiorari is highly sought by those who would have the court review a state supreme court judgment or that of a federal circuit court of appeals. Most of the cases heard by the Supreme Court are through the granting of a petitioner’s appeal to have the writ issued.
writ of certiorari	The writ issued by a higher court that grants review of the decision of a lower court. In the United States, the Supreme Court’s writ of certiorari is highly sought by those who would have the court review a state supreme court judgment or that of a federal circuit court of appeals. Most of the cases heard by the Supreme Court are through the granting of a petitioner’s appeal to have the writ issued.

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